Models Of Memory Flashcards
Define Input
Input is the information that enters the memory process using all five senses
Define Encoding
Encoding is the way in which information is represented in the memory store
eg sound, meaning, image
Define Storage
Storage is holding information in memory until it is needed
Define Retriveal
Retrieval is locating information in memory and recovering it from/getting it out when it is needed
Define Output
Output is memories.
Define Sensory Memory
A number of memory stores which hold incoming sensory information for very short periods of time
Define Short Term Memory
Temporary store where small amounts of information can be stored fro long periods of time
Define Capacity
A permanent store where limitless amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time
Define Duration
The amount of information that can be held in memory at any one time
Define Encoding
The way in which information is represented in the memory store by sound, meaning or image
Define Attention
The cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things
Define Rehearsal
Repetition of information
Capacity Of Short Term Memory
Magic Number [7+/- 2]
Evidence from Miller
Capacity Of Long Term Memory
Unlimited
No Evidence
Duration of Short Term Memory
Between 18-20 seconds
Evidence of Peterson and Peterson
Duration of Long Term Memory
48 Years and over
Up To a lifetime
Evidence Bahrick
Encoding of Short Term Memory
Memory is an Acoustic process
Evidence by Conrad
Encoding of Long Term Memory
Semantic Memory meaning it has meaning
Evidence by Baddeley.
Evidence of Short Term Memory Capacity
The Magic number 7 (plus or minus two) provides evidence for the capacity of short term memory. Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. This idea was put forward by Miller (1956) and he called it the magic number 7. He though that short-term memory could hold 7 (plus or minus 2 items) because it only had a certain number of “slots” in which items could be stored.
Evidence Of Short Term Memory Duration
The duration of short term memory seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, according to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971). Items can be kept in short term memory by repeating them verbally (acoustic encoding), a process known as rehearsal.
Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed that the longer the delay, the less information is recalled. The rapid loss of information from memory when rehearsal is prevented is taken as an indication of short term memory having a limited duration.
Evidence of Short Term Memory Encoding
Conrad tested Participants who were presented with sequences of six consonants and then asked to recall the sequences. Letters with similar sounds (e.g. “P”, “D”, “T”) proved more difficult to recall correctly than letters with different sounds (e.g. “D” “O”) even though the different sounding letters looked more similar (“D” looks like “O” but sounds different; “D” doesn’t look like “T” but sounds similar) STM encoding is acoustic
Evidence of Long Term Memory Capacity
Unlimited as there is No Evidence.
Evidence Of Long Term Memory Duration
Bahrick asked participants aged 17 – 74 were tested. There were various tests including:
A free recall test, where participants tried to remember names of people in a graduate class.
A photo recognition test, consisting of 50 pictures.
A name recognition test for ex-school friends.
Results of the study showed that participants who were tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in identifying names and faces. After 48 years they were accurate 80% for verbal and 70% visual.
Evaluation Of Long Term Memory Encoding
Participants were given lists of words with similar sounds (e.g. cat, mat…), similar meaning (large, big…) or lists of dissimilar words. Over the short term, there were many errors with similar sounding (acoustically similar) words, but in the long-term, mistakes were made for material with a similar meaning (semantically similar).
Outline The Multi-Store Model Of Memory
Data is collected through the stimulus input to the sensory register. This a non-encoding place as the information gets no attention. The capacity is very large as it constantly gathers information for a brief duration information that is useful goes through the attention process towards the short-term memory store. Short-term memory is used for immediate tasks such as math problems. It has a capacity of 7 +/-2 and can hold information for 3-20 seconds. 3 seconds holding 90% and by 18%, having less than 10% reliable memory it has an acoustic encoding and maintenance rehearsal will keep it in short term for a bit longer but continued rehearsal can create a long-term memory usually through semantic encoding. The capacity seems less unlimited and it can last a lifetime. Whenever needed retrieval of these memories can bring it back to short term for immediate use.
Briefly Outline The Multi-Store Model Of Memory
Sensory Information Process -> Sensory Register Store (C: All Sensory Experience, D: 1/2 Second, E: Sense Specific)
Attention Process -> Short Term Memory Store (C:7 +/-2, D: 0-18 Seconds, E: Acoustic)
[Rehearsal Loop]
Rehearsal -> Long Term Memory Store (C:Unlimited, D: Life Time, E: Semantic)
Define The Serial Position Effect
Murdock asked participants to learn a list of words from length of 10-40 and hen recall them. Words at the start were remembered in Long Term Memory and words at the end were remembered in Short Term Memory. While words in the middle were often forgotten.
Brief Strengths of The MSM
- Controlled Environment
- No Factors to interfier
- Control Extra Factors
- Repeat it
Brief Weakness of The MSM
- Not real world
- Participant confort
- Doesn’t relfect real life
- Its to artificial
Who Was HM
HM, lost his memory on an operating table in 1953. He had suffered from epileptic seizures for many years. They removed part of brain tissue after he started suffered from epilepsy which affected the LTM however his STM was intact. The supports the model as it proves evidence that there is different stores of memory.
Who is Clive Wearing
Clive Wearing suffered from Amnesia and was unable to transfer STM to LTM. However he could recall memories easy providing evidence that there is different stores as his rehearsal is damaging.
Who Is KF
The KF Case Study supports the Working Memory Model. KF suffered brain damage from a motorcycle accident that damaged his short-term memory. KF’s impairment was mainly for verbal information - his memory for visual information was largely unaffected. This shows that there are separate STM components for visual information (VSS) and verbal information (phonological loop).
Strength Of MSM
The MSM has made an important contribution to memory research as it was the first model created providing a foundation. However the main problem with the model is that it is over-simplified and fails to take account the complexity of the human memory. According to the MSM rehearsal is the only way that information can be transferred from the STM to the LTM. This can be said to be a weakness of the model because Flashbulb memory contradicts the model as a traumatic experience goes straight into LTM with no rehearsal needed.
Weakness of the MSM
According to the MSM, the STM and the LTM are unitary stores (Stand alone) However the case study of brain damaged patient KF found that his STM impairment was mainly for verbal material (such as spoken letters, words and numbers. His STM for visual material and meaningful sounds such as telephone ringing and cats mewing, was unaffected. This suggests the possibility of more than one sub-division within STM.
The Working Memory Model
Central Executive
Episodic Buffer
Phonological Loop
Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
Define Central Executive
Monitors and coordinates all other mental functions in working memory. Control System, Sends information to substores, No Capacity, Directs attentions.
Define Episodic Buffer
Recieves input from many sources, conducts mental episode of what is being experienced. General Store. Used for tasks including visual and verbal.
Define Phonological Loop
Processes verbal info,
Doesn’t hold or store,
The Auditory Store (Inner ear)
The Articulatory Control Process (Inner Voice)
Define Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
Codes visual information in terms of separate objects as well as the arrangement of these objects in ones visual field.
Processes all visual informations,
Inner Eye like planning a root.
The Role of The Central Executive
Central Executive:
Direts attention to particular tasks. It controls the other systems by determining how resources will be allocated
- Drives the system
- Decides how attention is directed
- Allocates the resources
The Role Of The Episodic Buffer
Episodic Buffer:
General store. Added later to the model to account for things that use both visual and acoustic information at the same time. EG when watching TV
It integrates information from the central executive, the phonological loop, the visual sketchpad and the long-term memory.
Has limited capacity.
The Role Phonological Loop
Phonological Loop:
Controls audiotry information further subdivided into the phonological store (inner ear) and articulatory process (Inner voice)
The Audiotiry Store (Inner Ear)
Holds information in speech based form for 1-2 seconds, Spoken words enter directly when listening to someone speaking.
The Articulatory Control Process:
Written Words enter indirectly after being converted sub-vocally EG when reading a book.
Rehearsals take place in here.
The Role of the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad:
Processes visual and spatial information (how things look and where they are, relationship between things.)
Holds visual information for a very short time.
EG you use it when you are planning a spatial task. IE going from your home to the college.
Strength of The Working Memory - Duel Task Performance
The model is supported by research evidence. Baddeley and Hitch based the model on results from studies that used ‘Interference Tasks’
The Deul task performance showed both Phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad been used together providing sub-divisions. It shows you can do multiple task as long as they are different processos.
He made people read a number out loud while answering true or false questions. One of the tasks were slower to complete than the other.
Strength of the Working Memory Model - KF Study
There is also other evidence in support of the model. For instance the case study of the brain damaged patient KF which found evidence to sub-divisions and sub-stores in the process as KF’s phonoligcal loop was damaged while his viseo –spatial sketchpad worked.
Furthermore it has a number of practical applications and it has been applied to a number of real-life settings
Weakness of the Working Memory Model : Central Executive
However the model also has weaknesses.
The idea of the central executive has been criticised as being simplistic and vague. It is probably several components and not just singular one so this model fails to explain anything about the central executive as it is porbably, most liekyl more complex.
Weakness of the working memory model: Musical Memory
It also fails to take into account ‘Musical Memory’ . Musical memory suggests people can listen to music and listen to someone at the same time. Providing evidence for multitasking while using the same process without it zoning out or slowing down.
Types of Long Term Memory
Explicit ( Conscious ) = Episodic and Semantic Memory
Implicit ( Unconscious) = Procedural Memory
Semantic LTM
Responsible for storing information about the world EG London is the capital of England Involves Conscious thought. Located in the Temperal Lobe
Episodic LTM
Responsible for storing information about events we have experienced EG a memory from the first day of school Involves Conscious thought. Located in the Hippocampus
Procedural LTM
Responsible for knowing how to do things EG knowledge of how to ride a bike Does not involve conscious though. Located in the Cerebellum
Strength of LTM: Brain Scans
The disctintion betweent different types of LTM is supproted by research using brain scans. This is proven as when participants were asked to recall different Long Term Memories the brain scan saw different parts of the brain been active. For episodic memory the hippocampus was, semantic memory was the temporal love and for procedural memory was cerebellum. This provides support in the disctinction between different types of LTM as it shows the different stores in different parts of the brain.
Strength Of LTM: Case Study
The Case study of HM can be used to support the distinctions between types of LTM. This is proven as HM’s hippocampus wasn’t working which stopped him from retriveing episodic memories however his semantic and procedural memory was intact. This provides support in distinction in types of long term as it shows different stores of LTm excist as HM could get one to work but the other two were fine.
Weakness of LTM: Episodic and Semantic
There is a lack of evidence to distinguish between episodci and sematntic LTM. This is shown as scientists argue becayse the hippocampus is located in the temporal lobe it is hard to make the ditinction. It is thought that to create a semantic meaning you must first have an episodic memory to create the meaning. This shows the lack of evidence for distinction as there hasn’t been enough evidence to distinguish a difference between episodic and semantic memories.
Define Forgetting
Losing the ability to recall a memory
Define Interference
Where one memory disrupts the ability to recall another.
Retroactive Interference Define
When newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information.
Example:
An example would be calling your ex-boyfriend/girlfriend by your new boyfriend/girlfriend’s name. The new name retroactively interferes with the old one, which is clearly problematic for recall.
Proactive Interference Define
The tendency of previously learned material to hinder subsequent learning.
Example:
occur with telephone numbers. When trying to recall a new phone number, the old phone number you have previously had for years could proactively interfere with the recall, to the point when it is very difficult to remember the new number.
Muller - Retroactive Interference Aim
To Test Retroactive Interference
Muller - Retroactive Interference Methods
Gave participants a list of syllables to learn for 6 minutes and had an intervening task during it.
Muller - Retroactive Interference Results
Found performances was less good when asked to do the task
Muller - Retroactive Interference Couclusion
Identified retroactive interference as a reason for forgetting
Muller - Retroactive Interference A P F C
To Test Retroactive Interference
Gave participants a list of syllables to learn for 6 minutes and had an intervening task during it.
Found performances was less good when asked to do the task
Identified retroactive interference as a reason for forgetting
Underwood - Proactive Interference Aim
Proactive interference could be easily significant
Underwood - Proactive Interference Methods
Asked participants to learn several word lists and recall them after 24 hours, looked at someone else’s study of secondary data to make meta-data
Underwood - Proactive Interference Result
The first list was recalled 70% efficient while later ones were only 20%
Underwood - Proactive Interference Conclusion
Saw proactive interference as a significant reason for forgetting.
Underwood - Proactive Interference A P F C
Proactive interference could be easily significant
Asked participants to learn several word lists and recall them after 24 hours, looked at someone else’s study of secondary data to make meta-data
The first list was recalled 70% efficient while later ones were only 20%
Saw proactive interference as a significant reason for forgetting.
Baddeley and Hitch: Into Interference Theory - Aim
Investigate interference effects in a everyday setting
Baddeley and Hitch: Into Interference Theory - Method
They asked rugby players to recall the names of teams recently played. Injuries and suspensions meant that most players they interviewed had missed some games, so for one player the last game might have been last week, while for another it was two months ago.
Baddeley and Hitch: Into Interference Theory - Results
They were able to show that the probability of correct recall was not dependent on the passage of time, as decay theory would predict, but on the number of intervening games. Recall for the last games was equally good whether that game played some time ago or last week.
Baddeley and Hitch: Into Interference Theory - Conclusion
Demonstrating the effects of interference in everyday life providing support for proactive and retroactive interference.
Baddeley and Hitch: Into Interference Theory - A P F C
Investigate interference effects in a everyday setting
They asked rugby players to recall the names of teams recently played. Injuries and suspensions meant that most players they interviewed had missed some games, so for one player the last game might have been last week, while for another it was two months ago.
They were able to show that the probability of correct recall was not dependent on the passage of time, as decay theory would predict, but on the number of intervening games. Recall for the last games was equally good whether that game played some time ago or last week.
Demonstrating the effects of interference in everyday life providing support for proactive and retroactive interference.
Evaluation of Interference Theory
Although proactive and retroactive interference are reliable and robust effects, there are a number of problems with interference theory as an explanation of forgetting.
First, interference theory tells us little about the cogntiive processes involved in forgetting. Secondly, the majority of research into the role of interference in forgetting has been carried out in a laboratory using lists of words, a situation which is unlikely to occur in every day life. As a result it may not be possible to generalise from the findings.
Define Retrieval Failure
Occurs due to an absence of cues. Based on forgetting and not been able to recall a memory
Define Cues
Are things that serve as a reminder. Meaningful link to the person and the type of cue.
Define External / Context Cues
Related to the environment, If the environment is the same you will remember better. However if your environment is different you will remember less significantly
Define Internal/ State Cues
To do with the persons mental state. If you happy youre more likely able to retrieve It better.
What helps information being Recalled
Information present when learning a new memory should be present when retrieving a memory otherwise it wont be recalled.
Tulving & Pearlstone -
Retrieval Failure : Aim
To demonstrate the value of retrieval cues.
Tulving & Pearlstone -
Retrieval Failure : Methods
Asked participants to learn a list of words belonging to different categories, for example names of animals, clothing and sports.
Participants were then asked to recall the words.
Tulving & Pearlstone -
Retrieval Failure : Results
Those who were given the category names recalled substantially more words than those who were not.
In free recall conditions, 40% of the words were recalled on average.
Whereas in cued-recall 60% of the words were recalled on average
Tulving & Pearlstone -
Retrieval Failure : Conclusion
The categories provided a context and naming the categories provided retrieval cues.
Evidence of cues using explicitly or implicitly encoded can act as a certain trigger to cue a memory.
Tulving & Pearlstone -
Retrieval Failure : A P F C
To demonstrate the value of retrieval cues.
Asked participants to learn a list of words belonging to different categories, for example names of animals, clothing and sports.
Participants were then asked to recall the words.
Those who were given the category names recalled substantially more words than those who were not.
In free recall conditions, 40% of the words were recalled on average.
Whereas in cued-recall 60% of the words were recalled on average
The categories provided a context and naming the categories provided retrieval cues.
Evidence of cues using explicitly or implicitly encoded can act as a certain trigger to cue a memory.
Strength of Retrieval Failure
Although context related cues appear not to have a very strong effect on forgetting. Baddeley still suggests they are worth paying attention to. For instance, we have probably all had the following experience. You walk into a room and suddenly forget why you walked in there in the first place. When we are having trouble remembering something, it is probably worth making the effort to try and recall the environment in which you learned it first. This is in fact a basic principle of the cognitive interview (a method of getting eyewitnesses to crimes to recall more information. It is a strength because being able to apply an explanation for forgetting to real life gives us the opportunity to help people to remember things more accurately. For example, advice based on these explanations could help people to perform better in exams, to avoid age-related memory losses, and help the police catch more criminals.
Weakness of Retrieval Failure
There is a danger that the encoding specificity principle does not explain anything. It makes an assumption that a cue is stored at the same time as a memory if the memory is successfully recalled later on. But it is impossible to test this assumption. This means it is impossible to show that the Encoding Specificity Principle (ES)P is false. This is a weakness because such circular arguments are not scientific.
Eyewitness Testimony:
An account given by people of an event they have wintessed (usually a crime or accident).
Causes Of Inaccuracies
- Postevent discussion
- Anxiety
- Leading Questions
Define Eyewitness Testimony
The evidence given in court or in police investigations by someone who has witnessed a crime or an accident
Define Misleading Information
Information that brings you to a false conclusion
Define Leading Question
A question phrased in such a way as to promt a particular kind of answer
Define Post Event Discussion
Having a conversation before he eyewitness testimony that can lead to inaccuracies.
Loftus and Palmer - Eyewitness Testimony : Aim
To see if misleading information could effect eyewitness testimonies
Loftus and Palmer - Eyewitness Testimony : Methods
Asked a group of 45 students separated into 5 groups to watch a video of a car accident and asked how fast the cars were going”. Each group got a different word in the question from contacted, hit, bumped, collided, smashed. A week later the same people were asked, if they saw any broken glass (when there was non)
Loftus and Palmer - Eyewitness Testimony : Results
Contacted produced the lowest speed of 31.8mph while smashed produced the highest of 40.8 mph
Participants who had “smashed” as their question answered to seeing broken glass more commonly than the other groups.
Loftus and Palmer - Eyewitness Testimony : Conclusion
The verb implied further things associated with the speed of the vehicle making it more likely that glass would be present if the cars smashed.
Loftus and Palmer - Eyewitness Testimony : A P F C
To see if misleading information could effect eyewitness testimonies
Asked a group of 45 students separated into 5 groups to watch a video of a car accident and asked how fast the cars were going”. Each group got a different word in the question from contacted, hit, bumped, collided, smashed. A week later the same people were asked, if they saw any broken glass (when there was non)
Contacted produced the lowest speed of 31.8mph while smashed produced the highest of 40.8 mph
Participants who had “smashed” as their question answered to seeing broken glass more commonly than the other groups.
The verb implied further things associated with the speed of the vehicle making it more likely that glass would be present if the cars smashed.
Methodological Issues with Loftus and Palmer - Eyewitness Testimony
+Lab based so it is controlled, so no outside factors can affect results
- Real life emotions aren’t reached as it was only a video and not in person, Lacks ecological validity
- Couldn’t generalise as it was only students
Ethical Issues with Loftus and Palmer Eyewitness Testimony
Traumatic memories can upset participants
Deception -> No lies?
Informed Consent -> Knew everything that will happen?
Protection from harm -> Physical and mentally stable when walking in and walking out?
Loftus and Zanni - Effects on leading questions Aim
To investigate the distortion of eyewitness memory by use of definitive/leading questions in interview procedure.
Loftus and Zanni - Effects on leading questions Method
Participants were shown a clip of a car accident. Some were asked “Did you see a broken headlight?” and others were asked “Did you see the broken headlight?” (the definitive.) There was no broken headlight in the film clip.
Loftus and Zanni - Effects on leading questions Results
17% of the participants asked the definitive question replied that they had seen the broken headlight, while only 7% of those asked the non-definitive question said that they had.
Loftus and Zanni - Effects on leading questions Conclusion
The use of definitive or leading questions in an interview can lead to the creation of false memories by the eyewitness - thus eyewitness testimony is subject to inaccuracy and its reliability can be questioned.
Loftus and Zanni -Effects on leading questions A P F C
To investigate the distortion of eyewitness memory by use of definitive/leading questions in interview procedure.
Participants were shown a clip of a car accident. Some were asked “Did you see a broken headlight?” and others were asked “Did you see the broken headlight?” (the definitive.) There was no broken headlight in the film clip.
17% of the participants asked the definitive question replied that they had seen the broken headlight, while only 7% of those asked the non-definitive question said that they had.
The use of definitive or leading questions in an interview can lead to the creation of false memories by the eyewitness - thus eyewitness testimony is subject to inaccuracy and its reliability can be questioned.
Evaluate Loftus and Palmer - Ecological Validity
One Limitiation of the research is that it lacked mundane realism / ecological valididty. Participants viewed video clips rather than being present at a real life accident. As the video clip does not have the same emotional impact as witnessing a real-life accident the participants would be less likeyl to pay attention and less motivated to be accurate in their judgement.
Evaluation Loftus and Palmer - Use Of Students
A Further problem with the study was the use of students as participants. Students are not representative of the general population in a number of ways. Importantly they may be less experienced drivers and therefore less confident in their abilitiy to estimate speeds. This may have influenced them to be more swayed by the verb in the question
Define Anxiety
Anxiety is a state of arousal, uneasiness or tension caused by apprehension/fear of danger or misfortune.
Psychologists tend to believe that small increase in anxiety may increase the accuracy of memory, but high levels have a negative effects on accuracy
Loftus Weapon Effect: Aim
To find if anxiety effects eyewitness testimony
Loftus Weapon Effect: Method
Exposed to one of two conditions:
1. Overheard a low key discussion in a lab about an equipment failure. A person them emerged from the laboratory holding a pen in grease covered hands.
2. Overheard a heated and hostile debate between people in the lab. After the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs. A man came out of the lab holding a paper knife covered in blood.
Participants were then asked to recall the person from 50 photos..
Loftus Weapon Effect: Results
49% correctly recalled the confederate from 50 photos in the condition where the person emerged holding a pen in greasy hands.
33% correctly recalled the confederate from 50 photos when the person emerged holding a paper knife covered in blood.
Loftus Weapon Effect Conclusion
This demonstrated the ‘weapon focused phenomenon’ as the participants focused on the weapon and were less likely to recall the person accurately.
It was concluded that a weapon focuses the attention and narrows the focus of attention, resulting in accurate central details but less accurate peripheral details..
Loftus Weapon Effect - A P F C
To find if anxiety effects eyewitness testimony
Exposed to one of two conditions:
1. Overheard a low key discussion in a lab about an equipment failure. A person them emerged from the laboratory holding a pen in grease covered hands.
2. Overheard a heated and hostile debate between people in the lab. After the sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs. A man came out of the lab holding a paper knife covered in blood.
Participants were then asked to recall the person from 50 photos..
49% correctly recalled the confederate from 50 photos in the condition where the person emerged holding a pen in greasy hands.
33% correctly recalled the confederate from 50 photos when the person emerged holding a paper knife covered in blood.
This demonstrated the ‘weapon focused phenomenon’ as the participants focused on the weapon and were less likely to recall the person accurately.
It was concluded that a weapon focuses the attention and narrows the focus of attention, resulting in accurate central details but less accurate peripheral details..
Loftus Evolution - Loftus and Burns
Participants were allocated to one of two conditions.
1. Watched a violent short film where a boy was shot in the head
or
2. Watched a non-violent short film of a crime
Participants were less accurate in recall when they saw the violent short film than those who watched the non-violent movie.
This demonstrates support for Loftus (1797) as it shows that when people witness anxiety provoking situations they are less likely to recall accurately
Loftus Evaluation- Christianson and Hubinette
They conducted research using 110 real life eyewitnesses who had witnessed one of 22 bank robberies.
Some were onlookers and some were bank clerks who had been directly threatened by the robbers.
It was found that:
* victims were more accurate than onlookers in their descrpition of the bank robbers.
*There recall lasted even after 15 months.
This demonstrates that anxiety did not make recall inaccurate and in some cases may have made recall more accurate.
Ethical Issues with Loftus Weapon Effect
The participants in Loftus (1979) were deceived as they were led to believe it was a real situation, this it may have caused psychological harm to the participant. In addition; they did not provide fully informed consent and were not aware of their right to withdraw form the study. The researchers attempted to over come this by fully debriefing participants at the end of the study and allowing them the right to withdraw.
Methodological Issues with Loftus Weapon Effect
One weakness is that the majority of research into anxiety and eyewitness testimony is laboratory based.
This means that the tasks may lack mundane realism. The tasks are not usually expected on real life, for instance you would not be normally asked to recall a short film. This means that the participants may not be focused on the details as they would be in a real life crime.
In addition to this laboratory research is conducted in an artificial situation, this means that it may lack ecological validity. Therefore the findings cannot be generalised outside of the laboratory setting.
Define Cognitive Interview
The Cognitive Interview (CI) is a procedure used by police to help eyewitnesses recall information more accurately. The procedure involves a series of memory retrieval and communication techniques.
