Models

Question 1

Steven’s World Map of English(1980)

Answer 1

-first attempts to model the spread of English around the world and trace its origins
-illustrates dominance and superiority of English as the ‘standard’
-shows the separation of British English and American English and how they’ve influenced different parts of the world
-shows connections between Englishes

Question 2

Kachru’s ‘Circles’ theory (1992)

Answer 2

-classified varieties of English into ‘three circles’- the inner circle, the outer circle and the expanding circle
-represent “the type of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages” (Kachru)
-doesn’t take into account the grey area that exists between these circles
-doesn’t address the diversity of Englishes within the circles

Question 3

‘Inner’ circle

Answer 3

-English as a L1
-e.g. USA, Canada, Australia
-differences in lexicon
-norm-providing

Question 4

‘Outer’ circle

Answer 4

-English as a L2
-e.g. India, Singapore, Nigeria
-own variety of English
-norm-developing

Question 5

‘Expanding’ circle

Answer 5

-English as a lingua franca (ELF)
-common language among speakers who come from different linguistic backgrounds
-used to communicate with speakers of other languages for business, politics, education etc.
-English as a foreign language (EFL)
-norm-dependent

Question 6

Schneider’s Dynamic Model (2007)

Answer 6

-considers how post-colonial varieties of English have evolved, so time is important as a factor here, along with a range of other social and political considerations
-in each stage, Schneider considers how new varieties of English develop

Question 7

Stage 1: Foundation

Answer 7

-English is brought to s new territory, leading to an emerging bilingualism
-colonial expansion and trade resulted in the initial spread of English worldwide
-some lexical borrowings to aid simple communication

Question 8

Stage 2: Exonormative Stabilisation

Answer 8

-an ‘elite’ bilingualism spreads, led by the politically dominant country
-this country determines linguistic behaviour and English is established as the language of law, administration and education

Question 9

Stage 3: Nativisation

Answer 9

-bilingual speakers forge a new variety of English as ties with settler’s country of origin weaken
-as settler’s establish themselves in their new environment, inter-ethnic contact increases and a new variety of English develops

Question 10

Stage 4: Endonormative Stabilisation

Answer 10

-after independence and inspired by the need for ‘nation-building’ a new linguistic norm is established and codified
-the new linguistic and local norms are developed and accepted in society

Question 11

Stage 5: Differentiation

Answer 11

-internal social group identifies gaining importance and is reflected in the growth of dialectal difference
-group specific varieties emerge leading to internal diversity