Model Answers

Question 1

Two strengths of primary data

Answer 1

1. Collected by sociologists themselves and focused on a particular topic they’re interested in
   - researcher has control over most aspects of collection
   - choose hypothesis, method, questions asked, how observations take place and how to categorise the responses.
   - They can formulate research methods that reflect their theoretical concerns - interpritivists can focus on methods which have high validity whilst positivists can focus on methods that meet their concern of reliability and representativeness.
   - researchers can take a critical stance on an issue.
   - By having control Willis could be critical in the education system and traditional Marxist theory of reproduction and legitimisation of inequality in schools.
2. Fills gaps in secondary data.
   - Quantitative secondary data identifies trends and patterns on a large scale but doesn’t necessarily offer explanations as to why this occur.
   - E.g. analysis of exam results by social group identifies their relationship but it then requires primary research such as Gillborn and Youdell’s research into the educational triage.
   - Primary research can develop new lines of enquiry where there are age gaps in the secondary data e.g. Gerwetz identified processes by which some parents were able to play the system of league tables and parental choice.
   - Where the only secondary data on a topic is existing sociological research the nature of the issue is being investigated may have changed in the time period so primary data would be useful updating previous research findings e.g. Archers study of the interaction between pupils identities and school applied Bordieu’s concept of habitus in a contemporary setting.

Question 2

Two limitations of primary data collection

Answer 2

1. Comparatively costly to collect and therefore often collected on a much caller scale than some secondary data sources.
   - Whereas some secondary data comes from well-resourced institutions including the govt, research trusts and businesses - the sociologist usually has to make do with limited research grants and budgets.
   - This may vary in size as well as depending on the academic status of the researcher.
   - This affects all aspects of a researcher programme including the number and range of ppts, methods employed, size of research team etc.
   - In some cases there may be one researcher e.g. Humphrey’s study of gay mens encounters.
   - One important consequence is the scale of research may be very small which means the study is less likely to be representative which would be of concern to positivists.
   - Willis’s study of anti-school subcultures involved only 10 young men.
2. The researcher coming into direct contact with those being researched.
   - Direct contact increases the likelihood of ethical problems arising.
   - Guaranteed anonymity, maintaining confidentiality and ensuring those involved aren’t harmed are more difficult to achieve with primary opposed to secondary data collection.
   - E.g. When investigating schools the greater vulnerability of pupils and more limited ability means gaining informed consent is more difficult. Delamont found her research into classroom interaction was easy to see or hear things that were illegal or could get pupils in trouble.
   - Dealing with this guilty knowledge only occurs when researchers are in direct contact with research subjects.
   - With covert primary research these are greater as this involves deception and potentially becoming involved in illegal/ immoral behaviour.

Question 3

Strengths of secondary data collection

Answer 3

1. Forms official statistics collected by the govt at regular intervals.
   - Sometimes through specific surveys of behaviour relating to govt concerns but mostly results from a count of outcomes of govt activities.
   - E.g. schools recording unauthorised absences.
   - Processes involved are standardised which allows for identification of trends, patterns and relationships.
   - E.g. stats about exam results can be analysed for relationships with social class, gender and ethnicity.
   - This can form the starting point for theoretical explanations of these relationships.
   - Trends can be identified and these ‘before and after’ correlations can prompt theoretical explanations.
   - E.g. this can be used to measure the impact of a particular crime prevention strategy by comparing crime ages before and after intervention.
2. Some originate from the state.
   - Exist on a large scale and usually free to access particular;army official statistics.
   - E.g. census every 10 years cost millions to carry out.
   - Data covers the whole range of govt functions including areas of interest to the sociologist e.g. education or health and crime.
   - Saves sociologists time and money.
   - Only govt has the power to require people to complete documents like the census, medical records etc.
   - With primary research sociologists cant compel people to participate.
   - Makes official data more likely to be representative because of immense scale and range of social groups included.
   - Data likely to have higher reliability as methods employed by govt are often repeated.
   - Sociologists cant come close to matching resources of state when it comes to collecting data on a large scale.

Question 4

Limitations of secondary data

Answer 4

1. Not originally collected for the same purpose of the sociologist.
   - Result from research carried out by govt or businesses or as a result of their day to day operations - some also come in the form of documents produced by individuals for personal reasons.
   - Misalignment of purpose means the research issue, how it’s defined and measured, categories employed and so on, may be all different to those of the sociologist.
   - E.g. MArxist may not accept the definition and categorisation of social class as used in official statistics.
   - This means there is often no secondary data available that matches the sociologists research purposes.
   - Although official data exists about a shortage of male primary school teachers there is no data on laddish subcultures/ teacher labelling.
   - Official data definitions change making comparisons over time difficult.
2. Validity of some secondary is open to challenge.
   - Personal documents may be highly valid in some cases but the same isn’t true of official statistics.
   - Interpritivists like Ciourcel argued secondary data such as official crime statistics are socially constructed - the product of multiple decisions made as potential crime is reported, recorded, investigated and so on.
   - A dark figure of crimes have been excluded for whatever reason during this process.
   - The validity of soft statistics is questionable.
   - When crime rates recorded in official are compared with those created by self-report studies 60% of crimes dont appear in the official statistics.
   - Theories seeking to explain crime and other behaviours based on official statistics may be fundamentally flawed.
   - Construction of official statistics is a subject of research.

Question 5

Strengths of quantitative data collection

Answer 5

1. Positivists see quantitative data collection as high reliability.
   - Methods of collection are standardised through structured methods such as questionnaires and these generate numerical data which can be analysed for trends and patterns.
   - E.g. official statistics compiled about exam results using standardised techniques can lead to other

Question 6

Limitations of quantitative data

Answer 6

• Interprivists criticise for lack of validity.
• Statistical data doesnt give an accurate/ authentic view of the meanings social actors and groups hold for several reasons:
• Questions and answer categories are determined by the researcher imposing meanings onto data.
• Researcher not research subject determined what’s important.
• Close-ended answer categories illustrate this - respondents have to fit views into categories determined by sociologist.
• Questionnaires, official stats and structured interviews involve a greater degree of detachment than interpretivist methods - lack of contact means theres no way to know the latter has interpreted the question or checking if answers are a true reflection of their views.

2. Positivists - higher in reliability and representativeness making it more scientific but this isn’t always true.
   - Not all as representative as it claims.
   - Questionnaires often have a low return rate limited the range of responses and distorting the sample of respondents e.g. Hite’s study based on 100,000 questionnaires had only 4,500 returned.
   - Poor questionnaire design can contribute to few being completed e.g. complex/unclear questions can put off respondents.
   - Structured interviews take more time to carry out which reduces sample size to a point where getting representative samples is difficult.
   - Rseaercher error in recording responses can reduce reliability.
   - Official stats may have limited representativeness as some are the result of surveys rather than being a count of the outcomes of a govt department.

Question 7

Strengths of qualitative data

Answer 7

1. Interpritivists claim it’s essential because it’s higher in validity.
   - Data is more accurate, truthful and gives an authentic insight into world views held by social actors/ groups.
   - Just hanging out with ‘lads’ Willis gained a better understanding of how they viewed the world.
   - Observation techniques - researchers see what people do not what they claim to do in interviews/ questionnaires.
   - Best way to access what a group thinks is to directly experience their day-to-day activity - gives insight from the inside - verstehen putting yourself in other persons place.
   - Qualitative data from unstructured interviews is high in validity because control over what questions asked, issues raised and the form answers take is more in the hands of the interviewee - can say what they want how they want.
2. Research techniques making qualitative data = flexible. E.g. Participants observation requires the researcher to go with the flow of events involving the group being observed - researcher not imposing structures.
   - Informality allows rapport to develop and this level of trust makes it more likely for respondents to open up - particularly useful when studying sensitive issues such as DV or truancy - researcher can back off if research seems to become threatening.
   - More open and unstructured means new areas of research interest are more likely to be uncovered during the research process.
   - Research group = more likely to be relaxed and open up more.

Question 8

Limitations of qualitative data

Answer 8

1. Tends to involve more contact with research subjects.
   - To uncover meanings means using methods that let the researcher get close and personal with those being studied.
   - As researcher wants to find out the worldview of someone they have to involve themselves in some way e.g. through PO or structured interviews.
   - Focus on getting close brings ethical problems.
   - Closer the relationship the greater risk of exploiting private areas research subjects might find upsetting/ harmful.
   - E.g. investigative victims of DV through unstructured interviews may take the interviewee back over unpleasant life experiences.
2. Positivists - lacks reliability.
   - Unstructured interviews and ppt observations are unique with a lack of standardisation. E.g. PO involves the researcher joining the group.
   - Much depends on the individual researcher and is unlikely the study could be Repeated. E.g. Each classroom interaction observation is unique.
   - Notes sometimes cant be taken is observation is covert e.g. Hammersley found he had to write up notes on his newspaper as he listened to staffroom conversations.
   - LAck of reliability means data produced cant be checked.
   - Comparisons are impossible.

Question 9

Two theoretical limitations of participant observation

Answer 9

1. Positivists - data lacks reliability.
   - Not standardised and impossible to replicate.
   - Method is unscientific as original study cant be replicated to see if findings are accurate.
   - Each PO study is unique and the interaction with the group dependent on a variety of factors such as characteristics and personal skills of researcher.
   - E.g. impossible for another researcher to repeat Patrick’s covert PO on a Glasgow gang and get the same results - Patrick was a teacher but he was young enough to fit in with the gang and gained access through his contact with the gang leader - extremely difficult for another researcher to gain access the same way.
   - May be easier to replicate overt PO as there is no deception but activities open to interpretation by researcher.
   - E.g. Barker has been criticised for getting too involved with and biased to the ‘Moonies’ she studied for 6 years.
   - Another rseaercher may have interpreted behaviour differently.
2. Lacks validity particularly overt PO due to Hawthorne effect.
   - Group being studied know they’re being observed meaning they may change behaviour.
   - Punch - police officer may not have behaved normally due to wanting to protect reputation - e.g. may not have shown him how they usually treated potential criminals during stop and search as they may fear they could get reported for being too aggressive to the public.
   - Overt PO of the moonies senior members of the movement may not have shown Barker how they ‘brainwashed’ new members to get them to stay.
   - Both studies data may not have been valid as it didn’t reflect normal behaviour.
   - CPO doesn’t have the issue of Hawthorne effect which is why interpritivists prefer this approach - the fact the researcher becomes a new member may cause suspicion and change the dynamic raising validity issues again.

Question 10

ethical limitations of participant observations

Answer 10

1. Researcher may have to get involved in activities that go against their moral code particularly in covert observations.
   - CPO involves deception - researcher has to lie to group meaning the researcher may have to engage in dangerous/ illegal and immoral activities as to not blow their cover.
   -Patrick had to participate in illegal/immoral activities like carrying knives and vandalising.
   - Nature was so disturbing Patrick had to leave the group.
   - Patrick had the moral dilemma that he should have informed police but this meant he would have had to end his research.
   - In Humphries tea room trade CPO study he had to witness and act as a look out for men involved in illegal sexual activities. As a result he risked being arrested.
   - The men involved could have come to harm if identity was revealed.
   - Humphries argued the ends justified the means as this was the only way he could uncover reasons why these men used the Tearoom was to study them covertly.
   - Despite being and honest method as informed consent is gained there may be ethical issues with overt PO.
   - E.g. researcher may observe behaviour of a gang in a school such as smoking that should be reported but they may be reluctant to do so as it may damage their relationship with the group.

Question 11

One theoretical strength of PO

Answer 11

• Interpretivist perspective - data gathered is rich in validity.
• INterpretivists use PO as a first-hand insight into social interactions and behaviours.
• People observed are in their natural setting so the researcher can gain in-depth and valid data.
• Subjective involvement by the researcher taking part so insight and verstehen can be obtained.
• E.g. Barkers overt observation of the Moonies was able to observe and participate the in the secret activities of the group and became a trusted outsider as she was with the moonies for 6 years.
• As a result Barker built a rapport with the group and gained in-depth valid data on activities.
• No Hawthorne effect so CPO may produce more valid data than OPO.
• CPO - once the researcher gains trust of group they potentially have access to to see all aspects of their behaviour for themselves.
• E.g. gaining trust over a period of months Humphries could uncover meanings behind why men who visited tea room engaged in this illegal behaviour.

Question 12

One practical strength of PO

Answer 12

• Gives sociologists flexibility in terms of how they conduct their research.
• PO allows researchers to adopt a bottom up approach.
• Interpretivists prefer this as society is understood through the eyes of individuals.
• Practical advantage of flexibility in terms of being able to study people over time.
• Participants are aware of the study so OPO has flexibility in terms of methods that can be used e.g. Barker’s OPO of moonies was able to use questionnaires and interviews to triangulate her findings.
• No set schedule the researcher can ask naive but important questions that may develop during the course of observation.
• CPO - once researcher has gained trust they will potentially have flexibility to access all aspects of activities of their behaviour.
• E.g. gaining trust over months HUmphries could uncover meanings behind why men visited the tea room.
• Once he gained trust Humphries revealed the purpose of research to certain participants while allowed flexibility for other methods such as interviews to confirm insights gained from observations.

Question 13

Two practical advantages of structured interviews

Answer 13

1. Straightforward and inexpensive way to gain large amounts of quantitative data.
   - Large sample achieves representative data that can be generalised form the group to the wider population.
   - Young and Willmot - 933 people interviewed by a team - cheaper than unstructured interviews since they dont need training (just read off a script).
   - Interviews were formal and standardised with precise and factual coded questions on simple topics like age, job, religion, birthplace and contact with family members.
   - Each interview took 10-30 mins.
   - Positivists keen on large amounts of coded, numerical data - easy to subject data to mathematical tests to see if any patterns exist and to test/ falsify their hypothesis via strength of any correlations in data.
2. Higher response rate than questionnaires - more representative and generalisable.
   - E.g. 987 people Y&W approached for their main sample only 54 refused.
   - May be because people find it harder to turn down face-to-face interactions.
   - If structured interviews conducted in schools this can boost response rate further.
   - E.g. if researcher can obtain official support from schools head and governors for their study the hierarchal nature of school may work in their favour.
   - Heads could instruct teachers to allow pupils to leave for interviews which would increase response rate.
   - Positivists like higher response rates as it makes the sample representative of wider society .
   - Easier to make generalisations from data and test/ falsify researchers initial hypothesis.

Question 14

Two practical limitations of structured interviews

Answer 14

1. Problems with sampling frame.
   - Sociologists often use the electoral register to pick sample using a sampling method to normally improve representativeness.
   - However electoral register is problematic as it is always out of date - people may move address and are either still on when they left or absent since they havent been registered.
   - Sample may be skewed towards a m/c bias making data less representative.
   - Schools may not keep lists of pupils sorted by ethnic origin so theres no sampling from available.
   - Gaining access to confidential info may pose a practical problem.
2. Superficial data.
   - Data from structured interviews tends to be limited and superficial.
   - Practical reason for this - need to be brief since most respondents are unlikely to want to stand on their doorstep/ phone and take part in time-consuming research.
   - Researcher is limited in the amount of questions and so the information that can be gathered.
   - Most questions are pre-coded where the interviewer ticks boxes/ circles responses from predetermined answers the interviewee chooses
   - SIs only suitable for gathering straightforward factual info e.g. age, job such as Y&W did.
   - No rapport developed with interviewee and no practical way to ask more meaningful questions in which the respondent can engage an give more in-depth resources.
   - One key reason why interpritivists reject the method of social research in favour of USI.

Question 15

Two practical advantages of USI

Answer 15

1. Relaxed and informal method creates rapport.
   - Interpretivists perspective - the more relaxed/ informal nature allows rapport to build between researcher and interviewee.
   - Rapport of greater trust is likely to generate data on sensitive topics which is high in validity as the interviewee is more likely to open up offering personal insight into their lives.
   - This generates in-depth qualitative data with the interviewee using their own words to describe feelings and actions.
   - An example of how UIs can develop a strong rapport with interviewees and this gain rich, valid data is Oakley’s study into pregnant women.
   - Women trusted Oakley so much that they told her sensitive info such as how 70% informed her they weren’t interested on holding their ne-born baby for the first time.
   - Labov abandoned a formal and adopted a more relaxed, informal style such as sitting on the floor and allowing Black students he was interviewing to have a friend present.
   - As a result he got a completely different response - children opened up and spoke freely showing they were competent speakers.
   - Such rapport is important when researching sensitive subjects such as bullying, domestic abuse and policing of crime if you want a valid picture.
2. Flexible.
   - Interview isn’t restricted to a fixed set of questions in advance but can explore whatever seems interesting/ relevant.
   - Researcher can generate new ideas/ hypotheses and put them to the test as they arise during the course of the interview.
   - No need to go away and draw up a new interview schedule as there would be if using structured interviews.
   - Flexibility enables researchers to explain questions/ terms the interviewee doesn’t fully understand.
   - Likely to improve the validity of responses as the interviewee will have a better understanding of the question.
   - Researcher can check their understanding of what the interviewee’s said by asking them to clarify/ rephrase so as they are better understood something not possible in a structured interview.

Question 16

Two practical limitations of using unstructured interviews

Answer 16

1. Time consuming to do interviews, transcribe recorded conversations, analyse material and type up final analysis - cost implications.
   - Being in-depth explorations, UIs take a long time to conduct often several hours each.
   - Limits the number that can be carried out and means the researcher will have a relatively small sample compared with larger numbers who can be studied using SIs/ questionnaires.
   - E.g. Oakley interviewed 55 women 4 times each with each interview lasting 2.36 hours on average.
   - Dobash and Dobash’s research into DV involved interviewing 109 women each lasting between 2-12 hours long.
   - Moreover, having done interviews, the researcher will have to type up transcripts for each interview which will take even longer.
   - Having completed that difficult task researchers then have to spend longer analysing their data and coming to conclusions about it and then synthesising it into a thesis/ report to be published in an academic journal/ book.
   - This amount of time and effort keeps sample sizes small and thus they are neither representative of academic journals/ books.
   - This amount of time/ effort keeps sample sizes small meaning they aren’t representative or generalisable which is one of the reasons positivists reject them.
2. Requires a higher level of interviewer training in interpersonal skills in order to achieve empathetic understanding.
   - Interviewer has to be highly trained in interpersonal skills to avoid unconscious biases and allow the voice of the interviewer to be heard.
   - They will need training in interview technique, training which has to be more thorough than for someone conducting structured interviews.
   - Interviewer needs to have a background in ethnography/ sociology so they can recognise when the interviewee has made a sociologically important point and can probe further with a suitable line of questioning.
   - Interviewers also need training developing better interpersonal skills so they can establish the rapport that is essential if interviewees are to answer fully and honestly.
   - Training has cost implications which feminists see as a price well worth paying.

Question 17

Two ethical advantages of using structured interviews

Answer 17

1. Informed consent.
   - Research has to conform to the General Data Protection Regulation and Data Protection Act 2018.
   - The GDPRDPA states silence, pre-ticked boxes or inactivity is presumed inadequate signal consent.
   - The default assumption is that all research must involve an ‘opt in’ consent procedure.
   - So carrying out interviews the researcher has to first create a consent form which is a document that informs the interviewee into the purpose of research, informs them they can withdraw whenever and informs them that if they aren’t happy with research/ data then it won’t be used in the study.
   - The interviewee isn’t deceived/ manipulated.
   - Some respondents are especially vulnerable such as students who can’t properly consent.
   - Interviews with them should only go ahead when you have first properly consulted a relevant expert/ your research supervisor and secondly their legal guardian which in the case of most students would be their parents.
   - The method conforms to the expectations of the British Sociological Association.
2. Minimising for harm.
   - The SI maintains a distance between researcher and respondents which minimises the possibility of: causing affront or being placed in danger.
   - SIs tend to ask questions about facts shallower themes such as who they vote for/ how often they see their family. Things that won’t upset them/ cause offence.
   - This is because SIs are only suitable for gathering straightforward factual info such as a persons age/ job just as Young and Willmott did in their study of extended family networks in East London in the 1960s.
   - Thus SIs keep distance between researcher and interviewee and don’t probe on sensitive issues such as questions of political beliefs, illegal behaviour, sexual behaviour, health, ethnicity or traumatic events which could trigger PTSD.
   - Consent form are always used in SI research enabling the interviewee to withdraw from research at any point.
   - Like wise particular attention is paid to the confidentiality and data management of all data since any data breach could be harmful to interviewees and their relationships if it was to enter the public domain before they could be anonymised