Mod 6 - Manipulating Genomes Flashcards
What is the total DNA of an individual called? (1)
Genome
Give 2 distinct differences between the genomes of a bacterium (e.g E.coli) and a human. (2)
E. coli has a single circular loop of DNA, with relatively few protein coding genes (4288) mostly organised into operons and in smaller loops called plasmids. There are also some ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA genes. Homo sapiens has rod-shaped chromosomes (23 pairs), each carrying 20 000 to 25 000 genes, and loops of DNA in the mitochondrial matrix.
Genomics is the study of which area if science? (1)
The study and application of genetic and molecular biology techniques to gene mapping and gene sequencing (on the chromosomes or for an entire organism).
State 3 of the different regions un the nuclear DNA of a eukaryote. (3)
Structural genes Non structural genes Ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA genes Regulatory genes Promoters Hypervariable sequences Introns and axons
Apart from nuclear DNA, what other DNA is found in eukaryotic cells? (1)
Mitochondrial DNA within mitochondria
Chloroplast DNA within chloroplast
There are several techniques used in analysis of DNA. Name 4. (1)
PCR
Gel electrophoresis
DNA sequencing
DNA profiling
Explain why a different primer is required for different DNA samples. (2)
The sequence of bases in the primer must match (by complementary base pairing) the DNA sequence at the start of the region of DNA being copied/amplified. Different DNA has different base sequences.
Outline how a sample of DNA may be treated before analysis using gel electrophoresis (2)
The DNA sample is treated with restriction enzymes to ‘cut’ it into small sections
OR fragments are amplified using PCR
OR a dye or a radioactive label is added and the fragments are loaded into the wells in the gel.
Outline the method of carrying out gel electrophoresis (6)
- Pour molten gel (agarose) into electrophoresis tank contains toothed comb to form wells.
- Once set, remove comb and add buffer solution.
- Load sample (containing dye) into wells.
- Connect electrodes to tank and power supply; leave to run until sample is 2cm from the end and then pour away buffer.
- Add stain to make banding visible.
- Rinse and observe.
Explain the basic principle and process used to carry out DNA profiling.
DNA contains a variable number of short tandem repeats; they are unique to each individual.
State the difference between mini satellites (VNTRs) and micro satellites (STRs), and explain why it is better to use microsatellites in DNA profiling. (4)
Minisatellites (variable number tandem repeats or VNTRs) are small sections (10–100 bps) of DNA in structural genes or in the non-structural DNA and are inherited from both parents. These are repeated at various points along the chromosome and can be cut by restriction enzymes.
Microsatellites (STRs) are much shorter sequences of nucleotides (2–5 nucleotides long but repeated 10–30 times) which may be in the non-coding DNA between the structural genes. These are easily identified and more unique as there is more variation between individuals and they are less likely to degrade. Also, only a short length is needed, so DNA profiling works well on a small sample.
In what way does Huntington’s disease involve STRs? (2)
The greater the number of STRs in the gene for the protein huntington, the greater the risk of developing the symptoms of Huntington’s disease in later life.
Explain how a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within a gene might not affect the protein produced during protein synthesis. Give an example of one important role SNPs may play. (2)
It is a variation in one nucleotide. A change in a single base will not affect the gene reading frame so protein synthesis can still occur and a protein can still be produced. It may be the same protein if the nucleotide change still codes for the same amino acid or it may be a different variation of a protein.
Role: act as biological markers of disease; form a large proportion of genetic variation in humans; occur more frequently than mutations.
Why is the genome of a Drosophila fruit fly useful in human genome studies? (2)
The genes involved in development in Drosophila are similar in some ways to those found in other animals including humans. This can be given as a percentage figure of degrees of similarity, which is useful in uncovering evolutionary relationships and ancestry.
Explain role of DNA ligase in genetic engineering. (1)
An enzyme that forms phosphodiester bonds. Can be used to join a gene to a plasmid.
How is a vector used in genetic engineering? (1)
A vector is a structure used to deliver a gene into the host organism as part of genetic engineering.
What is a BAC? (1)
A bacterial artificial chromosome.
What is a liposome? (1)
A vesicle surrounded by plasma membrane.
What is rDNA? (1)
recombinant DNA, formed when DNA from one organism is combined with the DNA of another.
Give correct terms for some of the applications used in genetic engineering: (5)
- Cuts DNA at specific bases sequences
- Anneals or seals the DNA cut ends and forms a phosphodiester bond between them
- Makes cDNA from RNA
- Is used to transfer DNA into the bacterial cells
- May be used to transfer genes into human cells
- Restriction endonucleases
- Ligase enzymes
- Reverse transcriptase enzymes
- Plasmids
- Viruses/liposomes
How does an restriction enzyme identify the position to make a cut in the DNA molecule? (1)
It cuts across the DNA at a specific recognition sequence, comprising a short palindromic sequence of bases.
Describe a sticky end and its importance in annealing. (2)
This is an unpaired ‘overhanging’ sequence of bases on one of the polynucleotide chains. It allows the annealing of another ‘overhanging’ sequence of complementary bases.
What consequence results from the variations in amino acids seen in beef and pork insulin compared with human insulin? (2)
The differences, although in only a few nucleotide base pairs, create a slightly different protein. This difference triggers the human immune system and an immune response.
Outline the steps involved in the process of genetically modifying E. coli to produce commercial quantities of human insulin. (6)
- The mRNA produced from the gene for insulin is extracted from β cells in the pancreas and converted to DNA using reverse transcriptase.
- Sticky ends are added to the cDNA.
- A plasmid from E. coli is extracted and cut using a restriction enzyme.
- The cut plasmids are mixed with the cDNA with complementary sticky ends.
- A ligase enzyme anneals the cDNA and cut plasmid.
- Plasmids are added to new bacteria treated with calcium followed by a cold shock.
- Transformed bacteria are identified and pure continuous cultures of them are set up.
- Insulin, produced in large quantities by the transformed bacteria, is harvested.