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Biology > Mod 5: Heredity - Reproduction > Flashcards

Mod 5: Heredity - Reproduction Flashcards

reproduction

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1
Q

what is reproduction

A

reproduction is the production of offspring; a procees where one or more parent organism create offspring

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2
Q

what the two types of reproduction

A

asexual and sexual reproduction

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3
Q

why is reproduction important

A

species must successfully reproduce to pass on their favourable genes to their offspring in order to ensure continuity of species

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4
Q

what is asexual repoduction

A

a process that does not invovle gametes or fertilisation whereby ONE parent clones itself to produce an offspring

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5
Q

how does asexual reproduction work

A

one parent divides itself to produce gentically identical offspring

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6
Q

where is asexual reproduction commonly found

A

in unicellulcar organisms; bacteria, protists

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7
Q

advantages of asexual reproduction

A
  • rapid growth
  • no need for a mate
  • not energy nor time intensive
  • no requirement to care for offspring
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8
Q

what are some disadvantages of asexual reproduction

A
  • little to no variation in population - vulnerale to sudden changes in the environemnt
  • many of the organisms alternate beween sexual and asexual reproduction - produces a gamete-bearing generation alternation with spore-bearing generation
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9
Q

what is sexual reproduction

A

the fusion of two gametes which carry gentic information from both parents that combine to produce diverse offspring that are genetically different to the parents

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10
Q

how does sexual reproduction work

A

two gametes (sperm and egg) from two different parents fuse to make a genetically different offsrping to the parent

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11
Q

advantages of sexual reproduction

A
  • introduces genetic varation and ensures continuity of species
  • allows for the population to better survive environmental change and disease events
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12
Q

disadvantages of sexual reproduction

A
  • requries large amounts of time and energy
  • requires a mating partner
  • fewer offsrping are produced
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13
Q

how is genetic material passed on in sexual reproduction

A
  • passed on in the form of chromosomes
  • each sepcies have two sets of chromosomes in homologous pairs
  • humans have 46 chromosomes
  • each parent contributes a gamete to the offspring
  • gametes are produced through meiosis
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14
Q

some differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

A
  • two parents to one parent
  • unique to identical offspring
  • meiosis divison vs mitosis, binary fission, vegetative propagation and budding divison
  • high genetic variation to low genetic variation
    *low efficiency to high efficiency
  • animals, planes nad fungi vs plants, fungi, bacteria and protists
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15
Q

what is internal fertilisation

A

when the eggs are fertilised inside of the females body

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16
Q

advantages of internal fertilisation

A
  • fewer gametes required
  • higher chance of fertilisation
  • organisms not limited to aquatic/moist environments
  • allows more control of mate choice
  • natural selection is quicker
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17
Q

disadvantages of internal fertilisation

A
  • requires mroe energy
  • generally produced fewer offspring
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18
Q

examples of internal fertilisation

A

most mammals, birds, reptiles
(although most birds and reptiles lay an egg, the eggs are fertilisied within the female’s body before laying the egg)

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19
Q

what is external fertilisation

A

when both the spem and the eggs are released into the environemnt and fertilised outside of the body

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20
Q

how to help external fertilisation

A

syncing of reproductive cycles, mating behaviours and release of gametes

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21
Q

advantages of external fertilisation

A
  • lower amount of energy required
  • time efficient
  • often produced large numbers of offspring
  • wide dispersal of young
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22
Q

disadvantages of external fertilisation

A
  • lower chance of fertilisation/gamete survival
  • organisms often limited to aquatic/moist environments to keep gametes alive
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23
Q

examples of external fertilisation

A

most fish, crustaceans, molluscs, some amphibians
* coral spawning
* tetra fish

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24
Q

what are hormones

A
  • messengers within the body that helps with functioning
  • comes from the pituitary gland
  • gonads only become functional at puberty
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25
Q

what is spermatogenesis

A

a continuous process by which testosterone is used to produce sperm.

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26
Q

role of hormones in spermatogenesis

A
  • LH stimulate the production of testosterone
  • FSH stimulate production of preotein by Sertoli cells
  • Inhibin - reduces level of FSH
  • GnRH - releases hormones
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27
Q

structure of sperm

A

head, neck , middle piece, tail
head - acrosome cap-like structure for help to break through the zona pellucida and fertilise the egg
middle piece - lots of mitochrondria for energy
tail - mobility of sperm

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28
Q

what are gametes

A

sex cells (sperm and egg), they are hapoid and only have half the amount of chromosommes normal somatic cells have

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29
Q

what are the key processes of the female reproductive system

A
  1. ovulation
  2. fertilisation
  3. implantation
  4. pregnancy and birth
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30
Q

what is ovulation

A

happens once every 28 days at around day 14 and is the relesae of an egg from the ovary

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31
Q

two phases of the menstrual cycle

A

follicular phase (days 1-13)
ovulation (day 14)
luteal phase (day 15-28)

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32
Q

key hormones during menstrual cycle (4)

A

FSH
LH
Oestrogen
Progesterone

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33
Q

what does fsh do

A

starts the maturation of the follicle and triggers growth of eggs in the ovarieis to get ready for ovulation

34
Q

what happens in the follicular phase

A
  1. fsh starts maturation of follicle
  2. cells lining secrete oestrogen
  3. oestrogen promotes production of LH
  4. mature follicle known as Graafian follicle
35
Q

what does LH do

A

helps control menstural cycle and triggers the release of an egg from the ovary

36
Q

what happnes in the luteal phase

A
  1. lh causes burst follile to build up lutein whcih now is called corpus luteum
  2. corpus luteum produces progesterone
    3 corpus luteum breaks down
37
Q

what does progesterone and oestrogen do in menstrual cycle

A

prepares the endometirum lining for a fertilised egg by thickening it

38
Q

what does corpus luteum do

A

it secretes progesterone to prepare the endometrium for an egg
if impantation does occur, the progesterone helps to maintain the pregnancy and keep the foetus alive and protected for 3 months until placenta takes over and then luteum starts to degrade

39
Q

what is fertilisation

A

the fusion of two haloid gametes to form a diploid zygote that takes place in the fallopian tube

40
Q

how does fertilisation occur (sperm-wise)

A

sperm must cross three layers
first, must push through the follicle cells
then the acrosome comes into contact with the zona pellucida and releases enxymes to assist that penetration
thirdly, the sperm will reach the plasma membrane and safety proteins only allow one sperm to penetrate and the egg causes electrical charges to prevent other sperm from penetration which immediately starts dividing

41
Q

what happens before implantation

A

cell divided: from 1 cell –> 2 cell –> 4 cell –> 8 cell –> morula –> early blastocyst –> blastocyst –> implantation

42
Q

what happens during implantation

A

this occurs around 6-10 days after ovulation where the blastocyst travels down the fallopian tubes and implants into the lining and then the cells continue to divide and form an embryo

43
Q

what happens if egg is not fertilised or implanted

A

the crpus luteum will degenerate 8 dyas after ovulation and the endometrium breaks down and menstruation starts

44
Q

what happens with the placenta

A

placenta begins to develop and finished developing in week 10 where it provides the foetus with a supply of nutrients and oxygen from the bloodstream of the mother

45
Q

what are the 6 key hormones of pregnancy

A

hcg
relaxin
progesterone
prolactin
oestrogen
oxytocin

46
Q

what does progesterone do in pregnancy

A

correct foetal development, stopping womb contraction until labour, preventing lactation, strengthenign muscles of pelvic wall for labour

47
Q

what does oestrogen do in pregnancy

A

maintaining, controlling and stimulating the production of other pregnancy hormones, development of many foetal organs, stimulating the growth and correct function of the placenta
promoting the growth of maternal breast tissue
preparing the mother for lactation

48
Q

what does relaxin do in pregnancy

A

prepares body for childbirth
increasing elasticity of ligaments
explansion of pelvis
hellps soften the cervix

49
Q

what does oxytocin do in pregnancy

A

causes uterine muscles to contract
causes cervix to relax

50
Q

what does prolactin do in pregnancy

A

stimulates milk production in the breasts

51
Q

what does hcg do in pregnancy

A

stimulates corpus luteum to contunue producing progesterone unti placenta takes over at week 10

52
Q

what is the psotive feedback loop to do wiht pregnancy

A

oxytocin: the reponse to the stimulus is to create more of the stimulus
1. baby pushes head against cervix
2. nerves sends message to brain
3. brain stimuales pituitary gland to release more oxytocin
4. oxytocin cuases muscle lining to contract
5. repeat

53
Q

how is success maximised

A

internal fertilisation - likihood of gamates meeting
implantation into the uterine wall - humans/animals with internal development of young
protected young/internal development

54
Q

what are the gametes of plants

A

spores, pollen and ova

55
Q

how to increase genetic variation in sexual reproduction in plants

A

rely on winds,, water or animals for fertilisaitona dn distance in order to get to different plants

56
Q

where are the gametes found in plants

A

gymnosperms: found within the cones
angiosperms: male part is stamen (anther and filament) - pollen found on anther
female part is pistil/carpel (stigma, style and ovary) - ovum found in ovary

57
Q

what is pollination

A

the transfer of pollen from anthers to the stigma generally through the use of pollinators that move from flower to flower transferring pollen and when the eggs are fertilised, they become seeds and develops into the fruit

58
Q

what are the types of pollination

A

self-pollination and cross-pollination

59
Q

what is self-pollination and advantages

A

when the pollen fertilises the ova of the same plant:
less energy - no need for petals or attractions
having the reproductive cycle at the same time - producing pollen and egg at the same time

60
Q

what is cross pollination and advantages

A

pollen fertilises the ova of a different plant:
requires more energy - producing attractions and needing pollinating agents
introducing genetic variation in offspring
stamens and stigma ripen at different times

61
Q

steps of flower fertilisation

A
  1. male gametes inside pollen is carried to female stigma
  2. pollen has a tube cell and generative cell, when it reaches the stigma - the tube cell creates a pollen tube from stigma down the style to the ovary, the generative cells travel down this tube
  3. generative divides into two sperm cells and enter the ovules. One fertilies the egg to form a zygote and the other combines with the nuclei to form endosprem
  4. ovule matures to seed and then seed dispersed to germinate
62
Q

advantages of seed dispersal

A

prevents overcrowding, competition of resources (light, water, soil nutrients)
increase chances of continuity of species

63
Q

different types of asexual reproduction in plants

A

cuttings
runners
rhizomes
suckers
tubers
bulbs
plantlets

64
Q

what are cuttings

A

when part of the plant is cut, put into rooting hormones and then planted in soil and new plant grown

65
Q

what are runners

A

when the stem grows horizontally and creates a bud by which a new plant is grown
e.g. strawberries, mint, spider plant

66
Q

what are rhizomes

A

stem grows horizontally underground to produce shoots that become new plants
e.g. bamboo, ginger, many ferns

67
Q

what are suckers

A

some root are modified and they become suckers and give rise to new plants from the same root bulb
e.g. reeds, wattles, blackberries

68
Q

what are tubers

A

large undergorund food strucutre bud and produce more plants
e.g. potatoes, sweet potatoes, dahlias

69
Q

what are bulbs

A

short stems that produce new plants
e.g. onions, garlic, lilties, tulips

70
Q

advantages of asexual reproduction

A

reproduce quickly without having to find a mating partner (sessile organisms)
helps in harsh environments - no benefits of variation
works in favourable conditions to quickly populate

71
Q

types of asexual reproduction in organisms

A

buddings, bunary fission, sporogenesis, fragmentation, parthnogenesis

72
Q

how does reproduction in fungi by spore happen

A

spores are produced in great numbers and when it lands in mixtures and food, it will germinate and produce hyphae which branch out and develop into mycelium which turns into a zygote and then are spores again throuhg meiosis

73
Q

what happens in fragmentation

A

a muticellular fungus divides in fragments and each fragment becomes a separate organimss with identical genetic information

74
Q

reproduction in fungi by budding

A

yeasts reproduce by buddings where a bulge forms on the side and and a new cell begins to form and when ready, the bud detaches from the parent

75
Q

bacterial reproduction in binary fission

A

basically mitosis - dna is replicated and then split apart

76
Q

what is selective breeding

A

two parents with desirable traits are selected and bred together and is used to produce humans ideal strains

77
Q

what is artificial pollination

A

manually transferring pollen from the stamen of one plant to the stigma of another

78
Q

what is artificial insemination

A

when semen is taken from a male and inserted into a female of choice

79
Q

what is hybridisation

A

organisms with desirable traits for paretns of two different species
e.g. geep, mules, liger

80
Q

disadvantages of manipulating plants and animals

A
  • losing traits of these organisms
  • monoculture - only few variants exist
81
Q

what is ivf

A

in vitro fertilisation - donor mother produced multiple mature eggs and eggs are extracted surgically and then the eggs are mixed with the donated sperm in a test tube

82
Q
A

Biology (8 decks)

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