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mod 13 Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine system function

A
  • Keeps homeostasis by using neg feedback
    • Has bunch of glands that secrete hormones that go to target site to initiate/ inhibit effect
    • Maintaining internal enviro, adaptation to stress, control of growth + metabolism, control of reproduction
    • Vs nervous system, endocrine takes slower but effects last longer + more widespread throughout body
    • Can indirectly affect many organs of body at distance by secreting hormones into blood
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2
Q
  • All hormones can be divided into 3 categories -
A

○ derived from amino acid tyrosine, from thyroid (thyroxine, triiodothyrionine)
○ derived from proteins - (calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, pituitary + pancreatic hormones, more of releasing + inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus)
○ Steroid hormones - cortisol, aldosterone, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone - all derived from cholesterol

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3
Q
  • Protein hormones
A

○ Hydrophilic - circulate freely in blood
○ Hydrophilic - cannot diffuse through cell membrane
○ Receptor - must be located on cell membrane of target cell since it cannot diffuse into cell

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4
Q
  • Steroid + thyroid hormones
A

○ Hydrophobic - need protein carrier
○ Hydrophobic - can diffuse easily through cell membrane
○ Receptor - located inside target cell

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5
Q
  • Hormones - secretion
A

○ Secreted into blood in pulses by specific stimulus + in amounts that vary w strength of stimulus

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6
Q
  • Receptors for hydrophobic hormones
A

○ Hydrophobic hormones can pass cell membrane, so receptor will be in cell membrane or in cytoplasm/ nucleus
○ But hormone needs to be released by carrier protein before entering cell
○ Once hormone binds to receptor, they will bind to DNA in nucleus to alter cell’s activities = more/ less production of proteins

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7
Q
  • Receptors for hydrophilic hormones
A

○ Cannot pass membranne, so receptors are on cell membrane
○ When attached, they start sequence of chemical reactions that alter activity of cell
○ 3 ways receptor can affect cell: through 2nd messenger system, through tyrosine kinase, through G proteins

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8
Q
  • 2nd messenger system - hydrophilic
A

○ Hormone binds to receptor, causes G protein on inside of membrane to produce a 2nd messenger (hormone is 1st)
○ Most studied 2nd is cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
○ Its released into cytoplasm, quickly alters proteins inside cell, which then trigger sequence of reactions in cell, which leads to diff intracellular responses (including release of proteins)

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9
Q
  • Tyrosine kinase - hydrophilic hormones
A
  • Tyrosine kinase - hydrophilic hormones
    ○ Hormone receptor complex activates tyrosine kinase on inside surface of membrane, which then alters existing proteins, which alters activity of the cell
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10
Q
  • Ion channels/ g proteins - hydrophilic hormones
A

○ Hormone w receptor, G-protein in cell is activated, which opens adjacent ion channels
○ If ion is Ca, it’ll act as 2nd messenger to alter existing proteins once diffuses into cell

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11
Q
  • Once hormones have had their effect…
A

○ They are broken down by diff systems in body
○ Removed from blood by metabolic destruction in blood or by tissues (liver, kidney), excretion by liver into bile, excretion by kidneys into urine

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12
Q
  • Control of secretion
A

○ Controlled by neg feedback (set point - control center - effector - controlled variable - sensor - control center) (stops itself)

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13
Q
  • Hypothalamus
A

○ At base of brain, above pituitary gland, below thalamus
○ Gets info from all over brain, made of nuclei (groups of nerve cell bodies)
○ Body’s homeostatic mechanisms - regulation of body temp, water balance, energy production
○ Regulates behavioural drives of thirst, hunger, sexual beh
○ Gets info from around body including metabolic, hormonal, temp, neural info

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14
Q

○ Hormones hypothalamus releases:

A

§ Prolactin Releasing Hormone (PRH)
§ Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH)
§ Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH)
§ Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
§ Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
§ Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
§ Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
○ referred to as releasing or inhibiting hormones because they cause the release or inhibition of a hormone from the anterior pituitary gland
○ prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) is secreted from the hypothalamus to cause the “release” of the hormone prolactin from the anterior pituitary. Prolactin then circulates in the blood to affect the target tissue

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15
Q
  • Pituitary gland - structure
A

○ 2 regions - anterior, posterior pituaitrary
○ Anterior - develops from tissue that forms roof of mouth, made of endocrine tissue + they secrete pituitary hormones directly into blood
○ This part of pituitary regulated by part of hypothalamus called hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system
○ Hypothalamus communicates w anterior by secreting releasing or inhibiting hormones into portal system + these hormones then go to anterior to stim/ inhibit release of pituitary hormones
○ Posterior - develops from neural tissue at base of brain, has axons + nerve terminals of neurons of cells in hypo
○ Tract of neurons called hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract
○ Neurons make neurohormones (antidieuretic hormone, oxytocin)
○ Hormones of anterior - control metabolic function in body + control growth of ovaries, testes, regulate reproductive functions
○ Hormones of posterior - ADH reg water reabsorp in kidney; oxytocin reg milk release from breasts + contraction of uterus in labor

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16
Q
  • Anterior pituitary hormones
A

○ Thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus causes the release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary
○ TSH then stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete the two thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)
○ Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. ACTH then principally stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol. ACTH also has a minor effect in the secretion of adrenal androgens and aldosterone
○ Growth hormone (GH) is under the control of two hypothalamic hormones – growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH—also known as somatostatin). The primary stimulus for GH release is GHRH. GHIH has a weak inhibitory effect on the release of GH.
○ Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete both luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). Both of these hormones act on the testes in the male and ovaries in the female.
○ Like GH, prolactin (PRL) release from the anterior pituitary is under the control of two hypothalamic hormones—prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) and prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH). However, PIH has the strongest control over prolactin secretion

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17
Q
  • Pituitary gland - posterior pituitary hormones
A

○ Made by nerve cells in hypothalamus
○ Hormones go down terminal and are released in response to action potentials
○ Releases 2 hormones - antidiuertic (ADH aka vasopressin) and oxytocin
○ ADH - causes reabsorption of water in kidney
Oxytocin - ejection of milk from breasts and causes uterus to contract during birth

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18
Q
  • Pituitary gland - regulation by neg feedback
A

○ hypothalamus secretes a releasing hormone (H1), which causes the release of an anterior pituitary hormone (H2) into the blood. Hormone H2 can feed back to the hypothalamus to decrease the release of hormone H1 in a “short loop” negative feedback system
○ The anterior pituitary hormone (H2) will circulate to an endocrine gland to cause the release of another hormone (H3). Hormone H3 can feed back to the hypothalamus and pituitary to decrease the release of hormones H1 and H2, respectively, by a “long loop” negative feedback system
○ In some cases, the hormone from the endocrine gland (H3) will affect one or more target tissues. These target tissue responses can feed back to the hypothalamus and can decrease the release of its hormone (H1) in an “ultra long loop” reflex

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19
Q

hypothalamus hormones

A
  • Hypothalamus control anterior and posterior pituitary
    • Releasing or inhibiting factors secreted into special portal system from hypothalamus to control release of hormones from anterior pituitary
    • Special nerve cells in hypothalamus make and store hormones ; these hormones are in posterior pituitary and released by cell’s axon terminal into circulation
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20
Q

Hormones/ releasing factors secreted by hypothalamus

A
  • Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH)
    • Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH)
    • Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
    • Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
    • Growth hormone releasing hormones (GHRH)
    • Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
    • Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
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21
Q

Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary

A
  • Prolactin
    • Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
    • Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
    • Luteinizing hormone (LH)
    • Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
    • Growth hormone (GH)
22
Q
  • Hormones made by hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary
A

○ Antidiuretic hormone

Oxytocin

23
Q
  • Thyroid gland structure
A

○ Is below larynx (voice box), has 2 lobes surrounding trachea
○ Thyroid made of follicles which are functional untis of gland
○ Follicles have central region of colloid surrounded by epithelial cells
○ Btwn follicles are parafollicular cells or C cells

24
Q
  • Thyroid gland - function
A

○ 1st to be identified as gland
○ Primary function - make thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)
○ They have iodine and made of tyrosine (amino acid)
○ Bc amino acid = hydrophobic, so need protein carrier to get into blood, but can go through cell membrane
○ They regulate basal metabolic rate of body
○ Follicular cells of thyroid make protein hormone, calcitonin = dec in calcium lvls in the blood

25
Q
  • Production of T3 and T4
A

○ Made in follicles of thyroid gland
○ Made w iodine, tyrosine, w help of thyroglobulin
○ T3 - 2 tyrosines, 3 iodines
○ T4 - 2 tyrosines, 4 iodines
○ Epithelial cells take tyrosine from circulation, combines it w thyroglobulin (made in cells), epi cells also pick up iodine (from diet), then tyrosine-thyroglobulin complex secreted into colloid and as its secreted, it attachced a number of iodine to each tyrosine
○ In colloid, 2 tyrosine join while attached to thyroglobulin
○ Number of iodine attached now dictates if its T3 or T4

26
Q
  • Secretion of T3 and T4
A

○ Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), released from anterior pituitary and binds to receptor on membrane = lots of reactions
○ = trapping and taking up circulating iodine to make T3/T4
○ = stimulating endicytosis of thyroglobulin complex in cells
○ = enzymatic removal of thyroglobulin from T3/T4
○ = stimulating secretion of T3, T4 into blood
○ TSH also stims thyroid to grow (called hyperplasia)

27
Q
  • Thyroid - regulation of secretion
A

○ T3, T4 will feed back to hypothalamus and pituitary to inhibit release of thyrotropin releasing hormone and thyroid stimu hormone (TSH)
○ Less TSH in thyroid = less T3, T4 released into blood

28
Q
  • Circulation of T3, T4
A

○ 90% is T4, 10% is T3
○ Both are tyrosine based (amino acid) = hydrophobic = circulate in blood attached to blood proteins
○ Secretes a lot of T4, but most is converted to T3, which is more biologically active

29
Q
  • Effects of T3 T4 on body
A

○ Hydrophobic = go through membrane
○ Receptors for these hormones in basically a lot of cells, and when attached, T3 T4 can alter transcription of the cell to make diff proteins - these proteins are enzymes that enhance metabolic activity of cell
○ Bc remember t3 t4 regulate body’s basal metabolic rate
○ BMR is how much O2 and energy body is using at rest aka the least amount of energy that a person will use
○ Also responsible for proper development of nervous system in fetus + make ppl more alert, responsive, emotional state

30
Q
  • Inc in thyroid hormones will equal …
A 
○ Inc body temp
		○ Inc cardiac output
		○ Inc ventilation
		○ Inc food intake
		○ Inc breakdown of energy stores (carbs, fats, protein)
31
Q
  • Thyroid gland diseases
A

○ Too much or not enough thyroid hormones = diseases
○ Hypothyroidism (not enough) = cretinism - caused by lack of thyroid galnd, inability to make t3, t4 bc of genetics, or lack of iodine in diet - aka dwarfism and mental retardation - prevent by thyroid hormone treatments
○ Adults can have hypo or hyperthyroidism (too much thyroid homrone secretion)

32
Q
  • Hypothyroidism
A 
○ Low basal metabolic rate
		○ Sensitive to cold room temp
		○ Weight gain bc of dec fat breakdown and inc fat storage
		○ Low BP (weak pulse)
		○ Slow reflexes, apathy, lethargy
		○ Depression
		○ Easily fatigued
33
Q
  • Hyperthyroidism
A 
○ High basal metabolic rate
		○ Sensitive to warm room temp
		○ Weight loss due to inc fat breakdown and dec fat storage
		○ Rapid heart rate
		○ Hyperactive or nervous activity
34
Q
  • Goiter
A

○ Disease resulting in enlargement of thyroid gland
○ Not enough iodine in diet, or too much thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)/ thyroid stim hormone (TSH)
○ Hypothalamic tumour can cause excess secretion of TRH and TSH = lots of thyroid hormone + extra TSH makes thyroid grow rlly quickly
○ No iodine = cannot make t3, t4 = no neg feedback = keeps secreting TRH and TSH = enlarged thyroid

35
Q
  • Calcitonin
A

○ Protein hormone secreted by parafollicular cells (aka C cells - c for clcitonin)
○ Regulates calcium lvls in blood and secreted when blood calcium lvls are above normal
○ It decreases blood calcium lvls by dec activity and number of special bone-dissolving cells called osteoclasts
○ These cells break down bone into calcium that is released into blood
○ Calcitonin also stims secretion of calcium in urine = dec calcium blood lvls
○ Works w parathyroid hormone (PTH)

36
Q
  • Parathyroid glands + parathyroid hormone
A

○ Glands on posterior side of thyroid
○ 4 glands in human + secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) when blood calcium lvls low
○ Hormone works anatagonistically to calcitoninc and raises blood Ca lvls when too low
○ PTH does this by inc number + activity of bone-dissolving osteoclast cells, which release Ca into blood AND dec excretion of Ca in urine by reabsorbing it out of filtrate
○ Without PTH, kidney would excrete Ca and eventually deplete body’s Ca

37
Q
  • Adrenal glands
A

○ Body has 2, each on top of kidney
○ Made of neural tissue + glandular tissue
○ Inner medulla is neural tissue under control of symp NS
○ Outer cortex is endocrine and under control of pituitary hormones
○ Has 3 layers - outer zona glomerulosa, middle zone fasciculata, inner zona reticularis

38
Q
  • Adrenal glands - function, hormones secreted by diff sections
A

○ Outer zona glomerulosa - secretes aldosterone (aka a mineralocorticoid that regulates mineral and fluid volume by kidney)
§ Aldosterone in reponse to angiotensin II, low Na, high K in blood and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), stims reabsorp of Na in nephron
○ Zona fasciculata - secretes glucocorticoid hormone cortisol (helps glucose metabolism)
○ Inner zona reticularis - secretes small amouts of androgens (sex steroids), released in response to ACTH
○ Medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) - so get it in head medulla under control of sympathetic NS (bc fight/ flight - adrenaline)
○ Epinephrine - inc HR, forces contraction and inc blood flow to heart + skeletal muscle

39
Q
  • Adrenal glands - cortisol
A

○ Is steroid hormone, is hydrophobic (goes through blood attached to proteins, but to have effect, needs to be separate from proteins so can go through cell membrane and attach to receptors in cytoplasms, then cortisol-receptor complex moves to nucleus, and alters activity of cell)
○ Always being secreted by adrenal glands in small amounts
○ Stress can inc its production + secretion
○ Stress can be physical (rlly hot/ cold), physiological (pain, loss of blood, low blood sugar), emotional (fear, anxiety), social (personal conflicts)
○ Stress stims hypothalamus to secrete corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) = anterioir pituitary secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) = stims adrenal glands to make cortisol (and aldosterone + androgens)
○ Cortisol goes back to hypothalamus and ant pituitary to dec release of CRH and ACTH

40
Q
  • Cortisol rhythm
A

○ Always being released but conc in blood varies during day bc of body’s circadian rhythm - aka a built-in metabolic and behavioural cycle that repeats every 24 hours
○ 2-4 am, lvls inc and peak just before waking up - reaosn unclear, but ppl say its to prepare for stress of day or bc haven’t eaten for a while to cortisol causes release of energy stores in body
○ Otherwise lvls relatively low throuhg most of day and evening

41
Q
  • Cortisol + glucose
A

○ Cortisol is a glucocorticoid - so involved w glucose metabolism + comes from adrenal cortex + is steroid hormone
○ Cortisol protects against low blood glucose lvls (hypoglycemia) + considered catabolic (breakdown of complex molecules to be used for energy)
○ Breaks down metabolic substrates (carbs to glucose, protein to amino acids, fat to fatty acid + glycerol) - this helps keep proper lvl of blood glucose
○ Glucose important bc usually brains’ only source of energy, other tissues can use fat + amino acids as source of energy when glucose low

42
Q
  • Hormone production - cortisol
A

○ Cortisol secreted when body under stress to inc glucose in blood
○ Most effects are catabolic - breakdown energy molecules to make glucose
○ Also suppresses immune system making individual more susceptible to infections
○ In liver - inc glucogenesis (production of glucose molecules from non-carbs like fats and amino acids)
○ In skeletal muscle - dec protein synthesis, in breakdown of proteins, dec glucose uptake
○ In adipose (fat) tissue - dec lipid (fat) synthesis, inc lipolysis (breakdown of fat, except in abdomen, cheeks - where it’ll inc fat deposits)

43
Q
  • Cushing’s syndrome
A 
○ Too much secretion of cortisol , cortisol is catabolic
		○ Symptoms are
			§ Wasting of muscle = weakness
			§ Thin skin = easy to bruise
			§ Poor wound healing
			§ Fat deposits in cheeks = "moon face"
			§ Fat deposits in abdomen = obesity
			§ Depression
44
Q
  • Pancreas - structure
A

○ Parallel to and below stomach
○ Has endocrine tissue (secrete hormones into blood), exocrine tissue (secreting chemicals through duct into digestive tract)
○ Endocrine portion has pancreatic islets (islets of langerhans), which surround small capillaries
○ Islets have 3 types of cells - alpha cells (25% of islets and secrete glucagon), beta cells (60% , secrete insulin and amylin), delta cells (10%, secrete somatostatin)
○ Exocrine portion has pancreatic acinar cells + ducts
○ Amylin function is unknown

45
Q
  • Pancreas function
A

○ Insulin secreted by beta cells of pancreas - used to make cells in body take up, store, and use glucose - dec glucose lvls in blood
○ Insulin relased when glucose lvls in blood inc, eg after a meal
○ Small inc in blood glucose = release large amounts of insulin
○ Release insulin - it circualtes in blood + stim glucose uptake and storage
○ Storage form of glucose is called glycogen
○ All cells in body respond to insulin, but esp liver, msucle, adipose tissue (fat)
○ Cells take up ciruclating glucose = blood glucose dec = dec insulin release from pancreas

46
Q
  • Pancreas - glucagon
A

○ Glucagon - protein hormone, works against insulin, aka inc blood glucose conc
○ Secreted by alpha cells in pancreas when glucose lvls decrease and amino acid lvls in blood inc
○ It stims cells to break down glycogen into glucose (process called glycogenolysis) and stims cells to convert noncarbs into glucose aka making new glucose from nonglucose fuel sources like amino acids (process called gluconeogenesis)

47
Q
  • Glucagon + exercise
A

○ Glucagon secretion also stim during exercise, esp long exhaustic exercise - can inc 4-5x
○ When like this, glucagon will release fatty acids from fatty tissue - muscles use the fatty acids as source of fuel
○ Symp NS activated during exercise stims release of glucagon, and release of fatty acids from adipose tissue
○ Muscle cell membrane not permeable to glucose itself - needs insulin so can be taken up - but fatty acids can diffuse directly across membrane and be used as another source of fuel

48
Q
  • Pancreas - somatostatin
A

○ protein hormone secreted by the delta cells of the pancreas
○ also released in the digestive tract and by the hypothalamus, where it is also referred to as growth hormone inhibiting hormone
○ released from the pancreas when blood glucose levels rise, when amino acid levels in the blood increase, and when there is an increase in blood born fats (called fatty acids)—all things that are related to the ingestion of food
○ primary function - reduce the secretion of BOTH insulin and glucagon - reason unclear - believed that somatostatin is trying to prevent the extremely rapid storage of food and trying to make it available to the entire body for a longer period of time
○ Less insulin = dec mvmt of glucose into certain cells + dec formation of glycogen
○ Less glucagon = dec breakdown of glycogen + dec conversion of noncarbs into glucose

49
Q
  • Pancreas - importance of blood glucose regualtion
A

○ Blood glucose of normal fasting person (like just waking up) - 80-90 mg/100ml of blood
○ 1 hr after meal - 120-140 mg/ 100 ml
○ When all carbs from meal absorbed from digestive tract to circulation, blood glucose gos back to normal w help of insulin
○ When starving, glucagon stims guconeogenesis to keep blood glucose lvls at 80-90
○ Important to keep blood glucose lvls relatively constant bc its primary fuel source for brain, retina, and some cells in gonads

50
Q

type 1 diabetes

A
  • insulin-dependent - damaged insulin making cells = less insulin production
    § Around age 14, so juvenile diabetes mellitus
    § person’s immune system attacks and destroys the insulin producing beta cells of the pancreas = glucose cannot be taken up by cells, causing blood glucose levels to rise well above normal—these levels can reach 300 to as high as 1200 mg/100 ml of blood
    § cells are unable to use glucose as energy, they must then rely on fats and amino acids as a fuel source
    § Associated w metabolic acidosis
    § increased blood glucose levels and the use of fats and amino acids as fuel have serious consequences:
    □ Inc glucose in urine
    □ Inc dehydration bc inc glucose in urine - bc water reabsorp needs ostomic gradient so more glucose in filtrate = less water reabsorp
    □ Damage to blood vessels = tissue damage in body - later lead to heart attacks, strokes, blindness, damage to kidney + NS
    □ Severe metabolic acidosis - bc of accumulation of acids from breakdown of fats being used as fuel = can cause coma, death
    □ Depletion of protein stores bc of breakdown of proteins in cells + using amino acids as source of energy
51
Q

type 2 diabetes

A
  • most common, 80-90% diabetes cases
    § After age 40, so adult-onset diabetes, usually obese can be controlled by diet - most cases just lose weight and fix ur diet
    § Insulin has little effect on cells bc they resistant to insulin’s urual uptake and storage effects
    § Unclear why resistant, but = inc in blood glucose = more relase of insulin, keeps going until beta cells depleted
    § This is why less insulin release in later stages

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