mod 1-8 Flashcards
(307 cards)
1
Q
Human Physiology
A
Study of how the human body functions and the integration of multiple organ systems working together.
2
Q
Organ Systems
A
Specialized systems in the body that interact and work together to perform specific functions.
3
Q
Integrative Physiology
A
The study of how different organs and tissues work together in a coordinated manner.
4
Q
Homeostasis
A
The ability of organisms to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.
5
Q
Negative Feedback
A
A regulatory mechanism that maintains homeostasis by counteracting a stimulus to keep conditions within a normal range.
6
Q
Positive Feedback
A
A mechanism that amplifies the response to a stimulus
7
Q
Endocrine System
A
System that provides communication between cells through the release of hormones into the bloodstream.
8
Q
Nervous System
A
System that provides communication between cells through electrical signals and neurotransmitters.
9
Q
Musculoskeletal System
A
System that supports the body
10
Q
Cardiovascular System
A
System that transports molecules throughout the body via the bloodstream.
11
Q
Respiratory System
A
System responsible for bringing oxygen into the body and eliminating carbon dioxide.
12
Q
Urinary System
A
System that filters blood to regulate acidity
13
Q
Gastrointestinal System
A
System that breaks down food
14
Q
Reproductive System
A
System responsible for generating offspring.
15
Q
Immune System
A
System that defends the body against pathogens and abnormal cells.
16
Q
Integumentary System
A
System that protects the body from the external environment.
17
Q
Why is human physiology integrative?
A
Some organs/tissues are specialized for particular functions
18
Q
External Environment
A
includes all parts of the body that are directly connected to the outside world
19
Q
Internal Environment
A
consists of fluids and structures within the body that are not exposed to the external environment
20
Q
food that is digested but not absorbed remains part of the ________ environment until it enters the ___________
A
external
21
Q
The body regulates its internal environment through
A
+/- feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis
22
Q
Most abundant molecule in the body
A
water
23
Q
Total Body Water (TBW)
A
total water contained in body’s internal compartments; divided into Intracellular Fluid (ICF) and Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
24
Q
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
A
fluid outside of cells
25
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
water inside cells
26
ECF in blood
plasma
27
ECF outside blood
interstitial fluid
28
mass balance
body balances out what comes into and leaves the body; body load + intake - output
29
set point
desired range for a condition
30
sensor
what notices change in the body
31
integrating center
compares info from sensor to set point
32
effector
an organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus.
33
Covalent Bonds
Bonds where atoms share electrons
34
Hydrophobic
Molecules with many nonpolar bonds that interact better with fats than water (lipophilic)
35
Hydrophilic
Molecules with many polar bonds that interact with water and form hydrogen bonds (lipophobic)
36
Ions
Charged atoms or molecules that result from loss or gain of electrons
37
pH
Measure of hydrogen ions in a solution
38
What are carbohydrates?
Biomolecules consisting of monosaccharide monomers
39
What is the general formula of carbohydrates?
Consist of general formula C, H, O
40
What are the main functions of carbohydrates?
Used for energy storage and structural functions
41
How are carbohydrates typically structured?
Typically found in ring structures
42
What are lipids primarily composed of?
Long carbon chains or ring structures
43
What are fatty acids?
Building blocks of lipids
44
What are triglycerides composed of?
Glycerol and three fatty acids
45
What are steroids characterized by?
A four-carbon ring structure
46
What are phospholipids composed of?
Two fatty acids and a phosphate group
47
What are some functions of lipids?
Energy storage
48
What are proteins made of?
Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
49
How many different amino acids contribute to the diversity of proteins?
There are 20 different amino acids that contribute to the diversity of proteins.
50
How is the structure of proteins determined?
The structure of proteins is determined by the sequence of amino acids.
51
What is the importance of protein folding?
The folding of proteins into specific three-dimensional shapes is critical for their biological activity.
52
Give examples of different roles that proteins can serve.
Proteins can serve as enzymes
53
How do the R groups of amino acids affect proteins?
The R group of amino acids can be charged
54
What are nucleic acids made up of?
Nucleic acids are polymers made up of nucleotides
55
What are the main types of nucleic acids?
The main types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA
56
What is the role of ATP in the cell?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide that serves as the primary energy currency of the cell.
57
What is the function of the sequence of nucleotides in DNA?
The sequence of nucleotides in DNA encodes genetic information
58
Why are nucleic acids vital?
Nucleic acids are vital for heredity
59
Hydrogen Bonds
Weak non-covalent bonds formed between polar molecules
60
Non-polar Covalent Bonds
Bonds where electrons are evenly shared
61
Polar Covalent Bonds
Bonds where electrons are unevenly shared
62
Acids
Molecules that release H+ ions in water
63
Bases
Molecules that bind protons (H+)
64
What are the main biomolecules?
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins
65
Explain the difference between non-polar and polar covalent bonds
providing examples of each type of bond.
66
Describe the significance of hydrogen bonds in biomolecules
and explain how they contribute to the properties of hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules.
67
Discuss the role of ions in biological systems and explain how they contribute to the concept of electrolytes.
Ions are charged atoms or molecules resulting from an uneven sharing of electrons. In biological systems
68
Explain the relationship between pH and the acidity or basicity of a solution
providing examples of acidic and basic environments within the human body.
69
Describe the structure and function of proteins
emphasizing the significance of amino acids and the diverse roles proteins play in cells.
70
Explain the composition and function of nucleic acids
highlighting the significance of nucleotides and providing examples of nucleic acids found in living organisms.
71
Catabolic reactions
Breaking down large molecules into small ones
72
Anabolic reactions
Synthesis of large molecules requiring energy harnessed from ATP
73
Enzymes
Proteins that bind specific substrates and act as catalysts by lowering the activation energy of chemical reactions.
74
Allosteric regulation
Process where small activators or inhibitors regulate enzymes.
75
Covalent modification
Regulation of an enzyme by adding a chemical group like a phosphate.
76
Metabolism
The sum of all chemical reactions in cells.
77
Endergonic
Anabolic reactions that need energy to proceed.
78
Exergonic
Catabolic reactions that release energy.
79
Activation energy
The energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction.
80
Enzyme-substrate reaction
Highly specific reaction where reactants bind to enzymes in their active site.
81
Affinity
The degree of attraction between an enzyme and its substrate.
82
Saturated
When an enzyme reaches its maximum reaction rate and cannot react quicker.
83
Enzyme expression
Regulation of enzymes through gene expression.
84
What are allosteric activators?
Small molecules that can bind to enzymes at sites other than the active site
85
What are allosteric inhibitors?
Small molecules that can bind to enzymes at sites other than the active site
86
Phosphorylation
Process where a kinase adds a phosphate group to an enzyme
87
Covalent modification
Process that changes an enzyme's activity by forming a covalent bond with another enzyme.
88
Regulatory site
Location on an enzyme where allosteric activators or inhibitors bind.
89
Chemical group
A group added to an enzyme during covalent modification to alter its activity.
90
Discuss the role of enzymes in lowering activation energy and how they enhance the likelihood of chemical reactions occurring. Provide examples to support your explanation.
Enzymes play a crucial role in lowering the activation energy required for chemical reactions to occur. By bringing reactants together in the active site and stabilizing the intermediate stages of the reaction
91
Explain the significance of allosteric regulation in enzyme activity. How do small activators and inhibitors impact enzyme function? Provide a real-life example of allosteric regulation.
Allosteric regulation plays a vital role in enzyme activity by modulating the enzyme's shape and affinity for substrates. Small activators and inhibitors bind to enzymes outside the active site
92
Describe the process of covalent modification in regulating enzyme activity. How does covalent modification alter an enzyme's affinity and activity? Provide an example of covalent modification in a biological system.
Covalent modification involves changing an enzyme's affinity and activity by adding a chemical group through a covalent bond. This process requires another enzyme to catalyze the bond formation. For instance
93
Discuss the concept of metabolism and how anabolic and catabolic reactions contribute to cellular energy balance. Provide examples of each type of reaction.
Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that occur within cells. Anabolic reactions involve the production of large molecules and require energy input
94
Explain the process of enzyme regulation through enzyme expression and gene expression. How can cells control enzyme activity through gene regulation? Provide examples to illustrate this concept.
Enzyme regulation involves controlling enzyme activity through various mechanisms
95
Explore the concept of substrate concentration in enzyme activity. How does substrate concentration affect enzyme kinetics
and what is the significance of enzyme saturation? Provide a detailed example to support your explanation.
96
Hierarchical structure in body
Molecules
97
Types of Tissues
Epithelial
98
What is the structure of epithelial tissue?
Epithelial tissue consists of continuous sheets of cells that cover body surfaces and line cavities.
99
What is the function of the basement membrane in epithelial tissue?
The basement membrane anchors the epithelium to connective tissue.
100
How are epithelial cells polarized?
Epithelial cells have an apical surface (exposed to the lumen) and a basolateral surface (attached to the basement membrane).
101
What is the role of tight junctions in epithelial tissue?
Tight junctions between epithelial cells prevent the passage of substances between them
102
What are the types of glands that epithelial cells can form?
Epithelial cells can form exocrine glands that secrete substances into external environments and endocrine glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.
103
What is connective tissue characterized by?
Connective tissue is characterized by a sparse population of cells embedded in an extensive extracellular matrix.
104
What are the major types of connective tissue?
Major types of connective tissue include loose connective tissue
105
What functions does the matrix of connective tissue provide?
The matrix of connective tissue can be liquid (blood)
106
What role does connective tissue play in the body?
Connective tissue plays a vital role in connecting and supporting other tissues and organs.
107
What is the main function of muscle tissue?
Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction and movement.
108
What are the characteristics of Skeletal Muscle?
Voluntary control
109
What are the characteristics of Cardiac Muscle?
Involuntary control
110
Where is Smooth Muscle found and what are its characteristics?
Smooth Muscle is involuntary
111
How does muscle contraction occur?
Muscle contraction occurs through the sliding filament theory
112
What is the role of Calcium ions in muscle contraction?
Calcium ions play a crucial role in initiating contraction by binding to troponin
113
Why is ATP necessary for muscle contraction?
ATP is required for muscle contraction and relaxation
114
What is nervous tissue composed of?
Nervous tissue is composed of neurons
115
What are the components of a neuron?
Neurons consist of a cell body
116
What is the function of glial cells in nervous tissue?
Glial cells outnumber neurons and perform various functions
117
How do neurons communicate with each other?
Communication between neurons occurs through synapses
118
How does nervous tissue contribute to homeostasis?
Nervous tissue plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating bodily functions through feedback mechanisms. It integrates sensory information
119
Cell
Most basic unit of life formed by the four biomolecules
120
Tissue
Collection of cells with related functions
121
Organ
Made up of different tissues
122
Lumen
Center of a tube in the body
123
Tight Junctions
Proteins that hold together adjacent epithelial cells
124
Exocrine Glands
Secrete chemicals into the external environment
125
Endocrine Glands
Secrete hormones into the bloodstream
126
Extracellular Matrix
Outside area of the cell
127
Plasma Membrane
Surrounds cells
128
Nucleus
Contains genetic material
129
Cytoplasm
Inside of a cell excluding the nucleus
130
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and processing.
131
What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?
Receives synthesized proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum
132
Where do proteins come from that are processed by the Golgi Apparatus?
Synthesized proteins are received from the rough endoplasmic reticulum
133
Lysosomes
Contain enzymes to digest debris and old organelles
134
Mitochondria
Produces ATP through cellular respiration
135
Cytoskeleton
Made of specialized proteins providing structural support
136
Microfilaments (Actin)
Found near cell membrane
137
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids and detoxifies certain chemicals.
138
Discuss the hierarchical structure of the body in terms of molecules
cells
139
Explain the role of epithelial tissue in the body. How does epithelial tissue contribute to maintaining the integrity of internal and external environments?
Epithelial tissue serves as a protective barrier that separates internal and external environments in the body. It lines the inside of tubes and organs
140
Describe the different types of muscle tissue and their functions. How does muscle tissue contribute to movement and force production in the body?
There are three main types of muscle tissue: skeletal
141
Discuss the significance of connective tissue in providing structural support to the body. How does the extracellular matrix contribute to the functions of connective tissue?
Connective tissue plays a crucial role in providing structural support to the body. It consists of scattered cells embedded in an extensive extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix is essential for the functions of connective tissue as it provides a framework for cell attachment and communication. It also helps in maintaining tissue shape and elasticity. Connective tissue includes various types such as blood
142
Explain the composition and function of nervous tissue. How do neurons and glial cells work together to regulate the body?
Nervous tissue consists of neurons and glial cells
143
Describe the key structures within a cell
including the nucleus
144
Plasma membrane
Acts as a selective barrier between intra and extracellular spaces
145
Passive transport
Transport from high to low concentration that does not require energy
146
Active transport
Transport that requires energy
147
Phospholipid structure of membrane
The plasma membrane primarily consists of a phospholipid bilayer with polar heads facing extracellular fluid and non-polar tails facing each other inside.
148
Membrane proteins
Carry out functions of the plasma membrane
149
What is facilitated diffusion?
Facilitated diffusion is a passive transport mechanism for polar molecules that requires specific transport proteins (carriers or channels).
150
How do transporters work in facilitated diffusion?
Transporters bind to specific substrates on the higher concentration side
151
What role do channels play in facilitated diffusion?
Channels
152
What is simple diffusion?
Simple diffusion is a form of passive transport where small non-polar molecules cross the plasma membrane without energy.
153
What type of molecules typically undergo simple diffusion?
Small non-polar molecules like O₂ and CO₂.
154
How does movement occur in simple diffusion?
The net movement occurs down the concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached
155
Parameters affecting diffusion rate
Include concentration gradient
156
What is osmosis?
Osmosis is the passive transport of water across membranes.
157
How does osmosis occur?
Osmosis primarily occurs through aquaporin channels and involves movement from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.
158
Osmolarity
The total solute concentration of a solution
159
What is primary active transport?
Primary active transport directly uses ATP to move substances against their concentration gradient.
160
What is the role of the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump in primary active transport?
The Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump transports 3 Na⁺ ions out of the cell and 2 K⁺ ions into the cell
161
What is secondary active transport?
Secondary active transport couples the movement of one substance down its concentration gradient with another moving against its gradient.
162
What is cotransport in secondary active transport?
Cotransport (symport) is when both substances move in the same direction in secondary active transport.
163
What is countertransport in secondary active transport?
Countertransport (antiport) is when substances move in opposite directions in secondary active transport.
164
Plasma membrane purpose
Keeps cell components in one place
165
Cholesterol
Affects the rigidity of the membrane; Stabilizes the membrane and affects its fluidity.
166
Carbohydrates
Attach to membrane proteins or lipids
167
Transporters
Interact with both sides of the membrane
168
Ion channels
Allow ions to cross the membrane
169
Isosmotic solution
A solution with the same osmolarity as another solution.
170
Hyposmotic solution
A solution with lower osmolarity compared to another solution (low solute
171
Hyperosmotic solution
A solution with higher osmolarity compared to another solution. (more solute
172
integral (transmembrane) protein
pass thru membrane many times using intracellular regions to interact with cytoplasmic proteins and extracellular regions to bind ligands from other cells
173
peripheral proteins
interact with membrane only on 1 side (cytoplasm/outside)
174
Discuss the key concepts of plasma membrane structure and its role as a selective barrier between intra and extracellular spaces. How does the composition of the plasma membrane contribute to its functions?
The plasma membrane serves as a selective barrier between intra and extracellular spaces
175
Explain the difference between passive and active transport mechanisms across the plasma membrane. Provide examples of molecules that move through each type of transport.
Passive transport involves the movement of molecules from high to low concentration without requiring energy
176
Discuss the parameters that affect the rate of diffusion across the plasma membrane. How do factors like concentration gradient
surface area
177
Explain the process of facilitated diffusion and the role of transporters and channels in this passive transport mechanism. How do transporters become saturated
and what happens when they reach a plateau?
178
Describe the difference between primary and secondary active transport mechanisms across the plasma membrane. How do these mechanisms differ in their energy sources and the direction of molecule transport?
Primary active transport uses ATP directly to transport substances against their concentration gradient
179
Explain the process of osmosis and its role in passive transport across membranes. How does osmosis differ from facilitated diffusion
and what factors influence the direction of water flow in osmosis?
180
Discuss the role of cholesterol and carbohydrates in the plasma membrane structure. How do these components affect the fluidity and function of the membrane
particularly in immune responses and cell-to-cell recognition?
181
What are chemical messengers?
Ligands
182
How do chemical messengers function?
They work by binding to receptors on target cells
183
Gap Junctions
Direct connections between cells allowing the passage of small molecules
184
Paracrine Signaling
Communication where cells release chemicals locally to act on nearby cells
185
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals released by neurons that diffuse across synapses to target cells.
186
Endocrine System
System that uses hormones
187
What are lipophobic messengers?
Hydrophilic substances that cannot diffuse across membranes and bind to receptors on the cell membrane. 2 examples are amino acids and peptides
188
Why are lipophobic messengers faster than lipophilic messengers?
Because they are pre-packaged and ready for immediate release.
189
What are lipophilic messengers?
Nonpolar substances that can diffuse across cell membranes and bind to intracellular receptors
190
How are steroid hormones synthesized?
From cholesterol
191
Can steroid hormones be stored?
No
192
How do steroids get to target cell?
They bind carrier protein in blood in order to travel and be shielded from water. Steroids diffuse into cell and bind intracellular receptors
193
Intracellular Receptors
Receptors located inside target cells that bind lipophilic messengers like hormones
194
Ligand-Gated Channels
Ionotropic receptors that open or close in response to specific ligands
195
Enzyme-Linked Receptors
Receptors that are enzymes activated by ligand binding
196
G Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCR)
Receptors that activate G proteins upon ligand binding
197
Neurohormones
Hormone-like molecules released by neurons into the bloodstream
198
Second Messenger
Molecule that amplifies signals in intracellular communication
199
Adenylate Cyclase
Enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP
200
Lipophobic Signaling
Signaling involving hydrophilic messengers that bind to cell membrane receptors and trigger intracellular responses
201
Lipophilic Signaling
Signaling where nonpolar messengers diffuse across membranes to bind intracellular receptors
202
Steroid Hormones
Lipophilic messengers synthesized from cholesterol that can cross cell membranes and bind intracellular receptors
203
Peptide Hormones
Protein messengers made through gene expression
204
Intracellular Signaling
Communication initiated within target cells upon binding of chemical messengers to receptors
205
Homeostasis
Maintenance of stable internal conditions in the body through regulatory mechanisms
206
Gene Expression
Process where information from a gene is used to synthesize functional gene products like proteins
207
Cyclic AMP (cAMP)
Second messenger formed from ATP by adenylate cyclase
208
Thyroid Hormones
Amines that are lipophilic messengers synthesized by the thyroid gland
209
What type of messengers characterize the nervous system?
Polar and lipophobic messengers
210
What types of hormones does the endocrine system utilize?
Peptide and steroid hormones
211
Are steroid hormones lipophilic or lipophobic?
Lipophilic
212
GPCR signaling pathway
1. Ligand binds to GPCR
213
3. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
a second messenger.
214
4. cAMP activates protein kinase A (PKA)
leading to cellular responses.
215
Explain the difference between lipophobic and lipophilic messengers in intercellular signaling. How do their properties influence the way they interact with target cells?
Lipophobic messengers are polar and hydrophilic
216
Discuss the role of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in intercellular signaling. How does the CAMP pathway amplify signals within the cell?
GPCRs play a crucial role in intercellular signaling by activating G proteins that trigger intracellular signaling cascades. The CAMP pathway is one such cascade where a ligand binds to a GPCR
217
Describe the process of lipophilic messenger signaling in intercellular communication. How do lipophilic messengers interact with target cells compared to lipophobic messengers?
Lipophilic messengers
218
Explain the significance of membrane receptors in intercellular signaling. Compare and contrast ligand-gated channels
enzyme-linked receptors
219
Discuss the types of chemical messengers involved in intercellular communication. How do lipophobic messengers differ from lipophilic messengers in terms of their properties and signaling mechanisms?
Chemical messengers include amino acids
220
How do gap junctions and chemical messengers contribute to intercellular communication? Compare and contrast their roles in signaling between cells.
Gap junctions directly connect some cells
221
Endocrine System
All cells and tissues of the body that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
222
Hormones
Ligands that bind receptors on or in cells and can act at distant targets in small concentrations.
223
Peptide Hormones
Include insulin
224
Steroid Hormones
Include cortisol
225
Amine Hormones
A type of hormone that is lipophobic.
226
Primary Endocrine Organs
Organs whose main function is to secrete hormones; e.g.
227
Secondary Endocrine Organs
Organs that also secrete hormones
228
ex. heart
liver
229
What hormone is released when the body is stressed?
Cortisol
230
What are the effects of cortisol on the body?
Stimulates breakdown of proteins and fats for energy
231
Hypothalamus
links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
232
Pituitary Gland
Consists of the anterior pituitary that releases hormones like prolactin
233
Posterior Pituitary
Releases peptide hormones like ADH (antidiuretic) and oxytocin into capillary
234
Anterior Pituitary
Contains actual endocrine cells that make their own hormones; regulated by hypothalamic hormones (tropic) which signal to anterior pituitary to release 2nd hormone to rest of the body
235
Tropic Hormone
Hormones that regulate the release of other hormones; most hormones in the anterior pituitary are tropic.
236
HPA Axis
An endocrine pathway involving the Hypothalamus
237
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol
238
CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)
released by hypothalamus; stimulates release of ACTH
239
Adrenal Cortex
Located on top of the kidneys
240
Cortisol Function
Stimulates the breakdown of fats and proteins for energy
241
What is hypersecretion of cortisol?
It leads to too much secretion of cortisol.
242
What is hypo secretion of cortisol?
It leads to not enough secretion of cortisol.
243
What can cause abnormal secretion of cortisol?
It is often caused by tumors of endocrine cells.
244
Stereotype Threat
Mild levels of stress can enhance the ability to form memories
245
ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
246
Discuss the role of the hypothalamus in regulating the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.
The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. It releases hormones that signal the anterior pituitary to produce and release hormones such as prolactin
247
Explain the difference between lipophobic and lipophilic hormones
providing examples of each type.
248
Describe the function of cortisol in the body and how it is regulated by the HPA axis.
Cortisol plays a vital role in the body's response to stress. It helps regulate metabolism
249
Discuss the impact of abnormal cortisol secretion on the body
including hypersecretion and hypo secretion.
250
Explain the concept of stereotype threat and its relationship to cortisol levels in the body.
Stereotype threat refers to the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about a group to which an individual belongs. When individuals experience stereotype threat
251
Describe the two-step process involved in the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.
The release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland involves a two-step process. First
252
portal system
consists of two capillary beds in series through which blood must travel before returning to the heart
253
Gametes
Sex cells (sperm or egg) that carry one copy of the genome
254
Zygote
Diploid cell formed by the fusion of gametes during fertilization
255
Sperm is produced in the _____ of the testes
and as it travels to the penis
256
What are the components of semen?
Secretions from seminal vesicles
257
What is the role of semen?
Provides nutrients and a suitable environment for sperm
258
What are some components found in semen?
High pH
259
Sperm production is regulated by...
testosterone
260
How does birth control work..
negative feedback onto the anterior pituitary to lower secretion of LH and FSH
261
Main functions of reproductive system
1. producing gametes (sperm and eggs)
262
haploid vs diploid
one set of chromosomes vs two sets of chromosomes
263
Gonads
ovaries and testes
264
reproductive tract
series of tubes that transport gametes from gonads
265
scrotum
External sac that contains the testes
266
What path do sperm take through the male reproductive system?
seminiferous tubules -> epididymus -> vas deferens ->ejaculatory duct -> urethra -> penis
267
FSH
Follicle-stimulating hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
268
GnRH
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone released by hypothalamus and stimulates anterior pituitary to release the release of FSH and LH
269
What does LH stand for?
Luteinizing hormone
270
What is the role of LH in females?
Triggers ovulation
271
What is the role of LH in males?
Stimulates the release of testosterone
272
Estrogen
Female sex hormone produced by the ovaries that regulates the menstrual cycle
273
Progesterone
Female sex hormone that prepares the uterus for pregnancy and maintains pregnancy
274
Hormones
Chemical messengers that regulate various physiological functions in the body
275
Epididymis
Coiled tube where sperm are stored and matured before ejaculation
276
Vas Deferens
Duct that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation
277
Ovary
Female reproductive organ that produces eggs and sex hormones
278
Menstrual Cycle
Monthly series of hormonal and structural changes in the reproductive system affecting both the uterus and ovaries
279
Corpus Luteum
Temporary endocrine structure in the ovary that secretes hormones to support pregnancy
280
Follicular Phase
FSH stimulates follicle growth
281
Ovulation Phase
mature follicle ruptures in response to a surge of LH
282
Luteal Phase
ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum
283
Hypothalamus
Brain region that controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland
284
FSH/LH
Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone that regulate the menstrual cycle in females and production of testosterone in males
285
How is testosterone regulated?
exerts negative feedback on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland to keep amount made in balance
286
Where do eggs mature?
follicles located in the ovaries
287
After ovulation where does the egg enter?
The fallopian tube
288
What is the uterus made of?
smooth muscle (myometrium) & endometrium (provides nutritional support to potential embryo)
289
ovarian cycle
includes follicular phase
290
uterine cycle
menstrual phase
291
Menstrual Phase
endometrium is shed when corpus luteum degenerates; estrogen and progesterone decrease causing menstruation
292
Proliferative Phase
endometrium regenerates; new layers and blood vessels grow
293
Secretory Phase
endometrium begins to release mucus
294
What 4 main hormones regulate the menstrual cycle?
FSH
295
In the early follicular phase what hormone level increases?
FSH
296
After 1 follicle becomes dominant & others die off
what occurs?
297
When estrogen levels rise because of mature follicle
what occurs?
298
Increasing estrogen switches to a + fb loop causing a surge in ____ leading to ___________.
LH
299
When luteal phase begins estrogen ___________
decreases
300
Once formed
corpus luteum secretes
301
Discuss the process of sperm production in the male reproductive system
including the role of testosterone and the pathway of sperm from the testes to the urethra.
302
Explain the hormonal regulation of sperm production
including the role of Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) and the feedback loop involving the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland.
303
Describe the menstrual cycle in females
detailing the ovarian and uterine cycles
304
Discuss the hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle
focusing on the roles of LH
305
Explain the process of egg production in the female reproductive system
detailing the maturation of eggs in the ovaries and the pathway of eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
306
Describe the role of estrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle
including their effects on the endometrium and the feedback loop involving the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland.
307
Why is there an increase of FSH at the beginning of the follicular phase?
at the end of previous cycle
