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mcb 32 exam 1 > mod 1-8 > Flashcards

mod 1-8 Flashcards

1
Q

Human Physiology

A

Study of how the human body functions and the integration of multiple organ systems working together.

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2
Q

Organ Systems

A

Specialized systems in the body that interact and work together to perform specific functions.

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3
Q

Integrative Physiology

A

The study of how different organs and tissues work together in a coordinated manner.

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4
Q

Homeostasis

A

The ability of organisms to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

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5
Q

Negative Feedback

A

A regulatory mechanism that maintains homeostasis by counteracting a stimulus to keep conditions within a normal range.

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6
Q

Positive Feedback

A

A mechanism that amplifies the response to a stimulus

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7
Q

Endocrine System

A

System that provides communication between cells through the release of hormones into the bloodstream.

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8
Q

Nervous System

A

System that provides communication between cells through electrical signals and neurotransmitters.

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9
Q

Musculoskeletal System

A

System that supports the body

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10
Q

Cardiovascular System

A

System that transports molecules throughout the body via the bloodstream.

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11
Q

Respiratory System

A

System responsible for bringing oxygen into the body and eliminating carbon dioxide.

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12
Q

Urinary System

A

System that filters blood to regulate acidity

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13
Q

Gastrointestinal System

A

System that breaks down food

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14
Q

Reproductive System

A

System responsible for generating offspring.

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15
Q

Immune System

A

System that defends the body against pathogens and abnormal cells.

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16
Q

Integumentary System

A

System that protects the body from the external environment.

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17
Q

Why is human physiology integrative?

A

Some organs/tissues are specialized for particular functions

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18
Q

External Environment

A

includes all parts of the body that are directly connected to the outside world

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19
Q

Internal Environment

A

consists of fluids and structures within the body that are not exposed to the external environment

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20
Q

food that is digested but not absorbed remains part of the ________ environment until it enters the ___________

A

external

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21
Q

The body regulates its internal environment through

A

+/- feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis

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22
Q

Most abundant molecule in the body

A

water

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23
Q

Total Body Water (TBW)

A

total water contained in body’s internal compartments; divided into Intracellular Fluid (ICF) and Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

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24
Q

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

A

fluid outside of cells

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25
Q

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

A

water inside cells

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26
Q

ECF in blood

A

plasma

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27
Q

ECF outside blood

A

interstitial fluid

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28
Q

mass balance

A

body balances out what comes into and leaves the body; body load + intake - output

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29
Q

set point

A

desired range for a condition

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30
Q

sensor

A

what notices change in the body

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31
Q

integrating center

A

compares info from sensor to set point

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32
Q

effector

A

an organ or cell that acts in response to a stimulus.

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33
Q

Covalent Bonds

A

Bonds where atoms share electrons

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34
Q

Hydrophobic

A

Molecules with many nonpolar bonds that interact better with fats than water (lipophilic)

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35
Q

Hydrophilic

A

Molecules with many polar bonds that interact with water and form hydrogen bonds (lipophobic)

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36
Q

Ions

A

Charged atoms or molecules that result from loss or gain of electrons

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37
Q

pH

A

Measure of hydrogen ions in a solution

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38
Q

What are carbohydrates?

A

Biomolecules consisting of monosaccharide monomers

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39
Q

What is the general formula of carbohydrates?

A

Consist of general formula C, H, O

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40
Q

What are the main functions of carbohydrates?

A

Used for energy storage and structural functions

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41
Q

How are carbohydrates typically structured?

A

Typically found in ring structures

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42
Q

What are lipids primarily composed of?

A

Long carbon chains or ring structures

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43
Q

What are fatty acids?

A

Building blocks of lipids

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44
Q

What are triglycerides composed of?

A

Glycerol and three fatty acids

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45
Q

What are steroids characterized by?

A

A four-carbon ring structure

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46
Q

What are phospholipids composed of?

A

Two fatty acids and a phosphate group

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47
Q

What are some functions of lipids?

A

Energy storage

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48
Q

What are proteins made of?

A

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

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49
Q

How many different amino acids contribute to the diversity of proteins?

A

There are 20 different amino acids that contribute to the diversity of proteins.

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50
Q

How is the structure of proteins determined?

A

The structure of proteins is determined by the sequence of amino acids.

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51
Q

What is the importance of protein folding?

A

The folding of proteins into specific three-dimensional shapes is critical for their biological activity.

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52
Q

Give examples of different roles that proteins can serve.

A

Proteins can serve as enzymes

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53
Q

How do the R groups of amino acids affect proteins?

A

The R group of amino acids can be charged

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54
Q

What are nucleic acids made up of?

A

Nucleic acids are polymers made up of nucleotides

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55
Q

What are the main types of nucleic acids?

A

The main types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA

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56
Q

What is the role of ATP in the cell?

A

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide that serves as the primary energy currency of the cell.

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57
Q

What is the function of the sequence of nucleotides in DNA?

A

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA encodes genetic information

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58
Q

Why are nucleic acids vital?

A

Nucleic acids are vital for heredity

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59
Q

Hydrogen Bonds

A

Weak non-covalent bonds formed between polar molecules

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60
Q

Non-polar Covalent Bonds

A

Bonds where electrons are evenly shared

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61
Q

Polar Covalent Bonds

A

Bonds where electrons are unevenly shared

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62
Q

Acids

A

Molecules that release H+ ions in water

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63
Q

Bases

A

Molecules that bind protons (H+)

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64
Q

What are the main biomolecules?

A

carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins

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65
Q

Explain the difference between non-polar and polar covalent bonds

A

providing examples of each type of bond.

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66
Q

Describe the significance of hydrogen bonds in biomolecules

A

and explain how they contribute to the properties of hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules.

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67
Q

Discuss the role of ions in biological systems and explain how they contribute to the concept of electrolytes.

A

Ions are charged atoms or molecules resulting from an uneven sharing of electrons. In biological systems

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68
Q

Explain the relationship between pH and the acidity or basicity of a solution

A

providing examples of acidic and basic environments within the human body.

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69
Q

Describe the structure and function of proteins

A

emphasizing the significance of amino acids and the diverse roles proteins play in cells.

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70
Q

Explain the composition and function of nucleic acids

A

highlighting the significance of nucleotides and providing examples of nucleic acids found in living organisms.

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71
Q

Catabolic reactions

A

Breaking down large molecules into small ones

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72
Q

Anabolic reactions

A

Synthesis of large molecules requiring energy harnessed from ATP

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73
Q

Enzymes

A

Proteins that bind specific substrates and act as catalysts by lowering the activation energy of chemical reactions.

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74
Q

Allosteric regulation

A

Process where small activators or inhibitors regulate enzymes.

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75
Q

Covalent modification

A

Regulation of an enzyme by adding a chemical group like a phosphate.

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76
Q

Metabolism

A

The sum of all chemical reactions in cells.

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77
Q

Endergonic

A

Anabolic reactions that need energy to proceed.

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78
Q

Exergonic

A

Catabolic reactions that release energy.

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79
Q

Activation energy

A

The energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction.

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80
Q

Enzyme-substrate reaction

A

Highly specific reaction where reactants bind to enzymes in their active site.

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81
Q

Affinity

A

The degree of attraction between an enzyme and its substrate.

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82
Q

Saturated

A

When an enzyme reaches its maximum reaction rate and cannot react quicker.

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83
Q

Enzyme expression

A

Regulation of enzymes through gene expression.

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84
Q

What are allosteric activators?

A

Small molecules that can bind to enzymes at sites other than the active site

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85
Q

What are allosteric inhibitors?

A

Small molecules that can bind to enzymes at sites other than the active site

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86
Q

Phosphorylation

A

Process where a kinase adds a phosphate group to an enzyme

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87
Q

Covalent modification

A

Process that changes an enzyme’s activity by forming a covalent bond with another enzyme.

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88
Q

Regulatory site

A

Location on an enzyme where allosteric activators or inhibitors bind.

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89
Q

Chemical group

A

A group added to an enzyme during covalent modification to alter its activity.

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90
Q

Discuss the role of enzymes in lowering activation energy and how they enhance the likelihood of chemical reactions occurring. Provide examples to support your explanation.

A

Enzymes play a crucial role in lowering the activation energy required for chemical reactions to occur. By bringing reactants together in the active site and stabilizing the intermediate stages of the reaction

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91
Q

Explain the significance of allosteric regulation in enzyme activity. How do small activators and inhibitors impact enzyme function? Provide a real-life example of allosteric regulation.

A

Allosteric regulation plays a vital role in enzyme activity by modulating the enzyme’s shape and affinity for substrates. Small activators and inhibitors bind to enzymes outside the active site

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92
Q

Describe the process of covalent modification in regulating enzyme activity. How does covalent modification alter an enzyme’s affinity and activity? Provide an example of covalent modification in a biological system.

A

Covalent modification involves changing an enzyme’s affinity and activity by adding a chemical group through a covalent bond. This process requires another enzyme to catalyze the bond formation. For instance

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93
Q

Discuss the concept of metabolism and how anabolic and catabolic reactions contribute to cellular energy balance. Provide examples of each type of reaction.

A

Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that occur within cells. Anabolic reactions involve the production of large molecules and require energy input

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94
Q

Explain the process of enzyme regulation through enzyme expression and gene expression. How can cells control enzyme activity through gene regulation? Provide examples to illustrate this concept.

A

Enzyme regulation involves controlling enzyme activity through various mechanisms

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95
Q

Explore the concept of substrate concentration in enzyme activity. How does substrate concentration affect enzyme kinetics

A

and what is the significance of enzyme saturation? Provide a detailed example to support your explanation.

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96
Q

Hierarchical structure in body

A

Molecules

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97
Q

Types of Tissues

A

Epithelial

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98
Q

What is the structure of epithelial tissue?

A

Epithelial tissue consists of continuous sheets of cells that cover body surfaces and line cavities.

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99
Q

What is the function of the basement membrane in epithelial tissue?

A

The basement membrane anchors the epithelium to connective tissue.

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100
Q

How are epithelial cells polarized?

A

Epithelial cells have an apical surface (exposed to the lumen) and a basolateral surface (attached to the basement membrane).

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101
Q

What is the role of tight junctions in epithelial tissue?

A

Tight junctions between epithelial cells prevent the passage of substances between them

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102
Q

What are the types of glands that epithelial cells can form?

A

Epithelial cells can form exocrine glands that secrete substances into external environments and endocrine glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.

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103
Q

What is connective tissue characterized by?

A

Connective tissue is characterized by a sparse population of cells embedded in an extensive extracellular matrix.

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104
Q

What are the major types of connective tissue?

A

Major types of connective tissue include loose connective tissue

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105
Q

What functions does the matrix of connective tissue provide?

A

The matrix of connective tissue can be liquid (blood)

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106
Q

What role does connective tissue play in the body?

A

Connective tissue plays a vital role in connecting and supporting other tissues and organs.

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107
Q

What is the main function of muscle tissue?

A

Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction and movement.

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108
Q

What are the characteristics of Skeletal Muscle?

A

Voluntary control

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109
Q

What are the characteristics of Cardiac Muscle?

A

Involuntary control

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110
Q

Where is Smooth Muscle found and what are its characteristics?

A

Smooth Muscle is involuntary

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111
Q

How does muscle contraction occur?

A

Muscle contraction occurs through the sliding filament theory

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112
Q

What is the role of Calcium ions in muscle contraction?

A

Calcium ions play a crucial role in initiating contraction by binding to troponin

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113
Q

Why is ATP necessary for muscle contraction?

A

ATP is required for muscle contraction and relaxation

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114
Q

What is nervous tissue composed of?

A

Nervous tissue is composed of neurons

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115
Q

What are the components of a neuron?

A

Neurons consist of a cell body

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116
Q

What is the function of glial cells in nervous tissue?

A

Glial cells outnumber neurons and perform various functions

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117
Q

How do neurons communicate with each other?

A

Communication between neurons occurs through synapses

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118
Q

How does nervous tissue contribute to homeostasis?

A

Nervous tissue plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating bodily functions through feedback mechanisms. It integrates sensory information

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119
Q

Cell

A

Most basic unit of life formed by the four biomolecules

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120
Q

Tissue

A

Collection of cells with related functions

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121
Q

Organ

A

Made up of different tissues

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122
Q

Lumen

A

Center of a tube in the body

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123
Q

Tight Junctions

A

Proteins that hold together adjacent epithelial cells

124
Q

Exocrine Glands

A

Secrete chemicals into the external environment

125
Q

Endocrine Glands

A

Secrete hormones into the bloodstream

126
Q

Extracellular Matrix

A

Outside area of the cell

127
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

Surrounds cells

128
Q

Nucleus

A

Contains genetic material

129
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Inside of a cell excluding the nucleus

130
Q

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and processing.

131
Q

What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?

A

Receives synthesized proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum

132
Q

Where do proteins come from that are processed by the Golgi Apparatus?

A

Synthesized proteins are received from the rough endoplasmic reticulum

133
Q

Lysosomes

A

Contain enzymes to digest debris and old organelles

134
Q

Mitochondria

A

Produces ATP through cellular respiration

135
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Made of specialized proteins providing structural support

136
Q

Microfilaments (Actin)

A

Found near cell membrane

137
Q

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids and detoxifies certain chemicals.

138
Q

Discuss the hierarchical structure of the body in terms of molecules

A

cells

139
Q

Explain the role of epithelial tissue in the body. How does epithelial tissue contribute to maintaining the integrity of internal and external environments?

A

Epithelial tissue serves as a protective barrier that separates internal and external environments in the body. It lines the inside of tubes and organs

140
Q

Describe the different types of muscle tissue and their functions. How does muscle tissue contribute to movement and force production in the body?

A

There are three main types of muscle tissue: skeletal

141
Q

Discuss the significance of connective tissue in providing structural support to the body. How does the extracellular matrix contribute to the functions of connective tissue?

A

Connective tissue plays a crucial role in providing structural support to the body. It consists of scattered cells embedded in an extensive extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix is essential for the functions of connective tissue as it provides a framework for cell attachment and communication. It also helps in maintaining tissue shape and elasticity. Connective tissue includes various types such as blood

142
Q

Explain the composition and function of nervous tissue. How do neurons and glial cells work together to regulate the body?

A

Nervous tissue consists of neurons and glial cells

143
Q

Describe the key structures within a cell

A

including the nucleus

144
Q

Plasma membrane

A

Acts as a selective barrier between intra and extracellular spaces

145
Q

Passive transport

A

Transport from high to low concentration that does not require energy

146
Q

Active transport

A

Transport that requires energy

147
Q

Phospholipid structure of membrane

A

The plasma membrane primarily consists of a phospholipid bilayer with polar heads facing extracellular fluid and non-polar tails facing each other inside.

148
Q

Membrane proteins

A

Carry out functions of the plasma membrane

149
Q

What is facilitated diffusion?

A

Facilitated diffusion is a passive transport mechanism for polar molecules that requires specific transport proteins (carriers or channels).

150
Q

How do transporters work in facilitated diffusion?

A

Transporters bind to specific substrates on the higher concentration side

151
Q

What role do channels play in facilitated diffusion?

A

Channels

152
Q

What is simple diffusion?

A

Simple diffusion is a form of passive transport where small non-polar molecules cross the plasma membrane without energy.

153
Q

What type of molecules typically undergo simple diffusion?

A

Small non-polar molecules like O₂ and CO₂.

154
Q

How does movement occur in simple diffusion?

A

The net movement occurs down the concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached

155
Q

Parameters affecting diffusion rate

A

Include concentration gradient

156
Q

What is osmosis?

A

Osmosis is the passive transport of water across membranes.

157
Q

How does osmosis occur?

A

Osmosis primarily occurs through aquaporin channels and involves movement from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

158
Q

Osmolarity

A

The total solute concentration of a solution

159
Q

What is primary active transport?

A

Primary active transport directly uses ATP to move substances against their concentration gradient.

160
Q

What is the role of the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump in primary active transport?

A

The Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump transports 3 Na⁺ ions out of the cell and 2 K⁺ ions into the cell

161
Q

What is secondary active transport?

A

Secondary active transport couples the movement of one substance down its concentration gradient with another moving against its gradient.

162
Q

What is cotransport in secondary active transport?

A

Cotransport (symport) is when both substances move in the same direction in secondary active transport.

163
Q

What is countertransport in secondary active transport?

A

Countertransport (antiport) is when substances move in opposite directions in secondary active transport.

164
Q

Plasma membrane purpose

A

Keeps cell components in one place

165
Q

Cholesterol

A

Affects the rigidity of the membrane; Stabilizes the membrane and affects its fluidity.

166
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Attach to membrane proteins or lipids

167
Q

Transporters

A

Interact with both sides of the membrane

168
Q

Ion channels

A

Allow ions to cross the membrane

169
Q

Isosmotic solution

A

A solution with the same osmolarity as another solution.

170
Q

Hyposmotic solution

A

A solution with lower osmolarity compared to another solution (low solute

171
Q

Hyperosmotic solution

A

A solution with higher osmolarity compared to another solution. (more solute

172
Q

integral (transmembrane) protein

A

pass thru membrane many times using intracellular regions to interact with cytoplasmic proteins and extracellular regions to bind ligands from other cells

173
Q

peripheral proteins

A

interact with membrane only on 1 side (cytoplasm/outside)

174
Q

Discuss the key concepts of plasma membrane structure and its role as a selective barrier between intra and extracellular spaces. How does the composition of the plasma membrane contribute to its functions?

A

The plasma membrane serves as a selective barrier between intra and extracellular spaces

175
Q

Explain the difference between passive and active transport mechanisms across the plasma membrane. Provide examples of molecules that move through each type of transport.

A

Passive transport involves the movement of molecules from high to low concentration without requiring energy

176
Q

Discuss the parameters that affect the rate of diffusion across the plasma membrane. How do factors like concentration gradient

A

surface area

177
Q

Explain the process of facilitated diffusion and the role of transporters and channels in this passive transport mechanism. How do transporters become saturated

A

and what happens when they reach a plateau?

178
Q

Describe the difference between primary and secondary active transport mechanisms across the plasma membrane. How do these mechanisms differ in their energy sources and the direction of molecule transport?

A

Primary active transport uses ATP directly to transport substances against their concentration gradient

179
Q

Explain the process of osmosis and its role in passive transport across membranes. How does osmosis differ from facilitated diffusion

A

and what factors influence the direction of water flow in osmosis?

180
Q

Discuss the role of cholesterol and carbohydrates in the plasma membrane structure. How do these components affect the fluidity and function of the membrane

A

particularly in immune responses and cell-to-cell recognition?

181
Q

What are chemical messengers?

A

Ligands

182
Q

How do chemical messengers function?

A

They work by binding to receptors on target cells

183
Q

Gap Junctions

A

Direct connections between cells allowing the passage of small molecules

184
Q

Paracrine Signaling

A

Communication where cells release chemicals locally to act on nearby cells

185
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemicals released by neurons that diffuse across synapses to target cells.

186
Q

Endocrine System

A

System that uses hormones

187
Q

What are lipophobic messengers?

A

Hydrophilic substances that cannot diffuse across membranes and bind to receptors on the cell membrane. 2 examples are amino acids and peptides

188
Q

Why are lipophobic messengers faster than lipophilic messengers?

A

Because they are pre-packaged and ready for immediate release.

189
Q

What are lipophilic messengers?

A

Nonpolar substances that can diffuse across cell membranes and bind to intracellular receptors

190
Q

How are steroid hormones synthesized?

A

From cholesterol

191
Q

Can steroid hormones be stored?

A

No

192
Q

How do steroids get to target cell?

A

They bind carrier protein in blood in order to travel and be shielded from water. Steroids diffuse into cell and bind intracellular receptors

193
Q

Intracellular Receptors

A

Receptors located inside target cells that bind lipophilic messengers like hormones

194
Q

Ligand-Gated Channels

A

Ionotropic receptors that open or close in response to specific ligands

195
Q

Enzyme-Linked Receptors

A

Receptors that are enzymes activated by ligand binding

196
Q

G Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCR)

A

Receptors that activate G proteins upon ligand binding

197
Q

Neurohormones

A

Hormone-like molecules released by neurons into the bloodstream

198
Q

Second Messenger

A

Molecule that amplifies signals in intracellular communication

199
Q

Adenylate Cyclase

A

Enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP

200
Q

Lipophobic Signaling

A

Signaling involving hydrophilic messengers that bind to cell membrane receptors and trigger intracellular responses

201
Q

Lipophilic Signaling

A

Signaling where nonpolar messengers diffuse across membranes to bind intracellular receptors

202
Q

Steroid Hormones

A

Lipophilic messengers synthesized from cholesterol that can cross cell membranes and bind intracellular receptors

203
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

Protein messengers made through gene expression

204
Q

Intracellular Signaling

A

Communication initiated within target cells upon binding of chemical messengers to receptors

205
Q

Homeostasis

A

Maintenance of stable internal conditions in the body through regulatory mechanisms

206
Q

Gene Expression

A

Process where information from a gene is used to synthesize functional gene products like proteins

207
Q

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

A

Second messenger formed from ATP by adenylate cyclase

208
Q

Thyroid Hormones

A

Amines that are lipophilic messengers synthesized by the thyroid gland

209
Q

What type of messengers characterize the nervous system?

A

Polar and lipophobic messengers

210
Q

What types of hormones does the endocrine system utilize?

A

Peptide and steroid hormones

211
Q

Are steroid hormones lipophilic or lipophobic?

A

Lipophilic

212
Q

GPCR signaling pathway

A
  1. Ligand binds to GPCR
213
Q
  1. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP
A

a second messenger.

214
Q
  1. cAMP activates protein kinase A (PKA)
A

leading to cellular responses.

215
Q

Explain the difference between lipophobic and lipophilic messengers in intercellular signaling. How do their properties influence the way they interact with target cells?

A

Lipophobic messengers are polar and hydrophilic

216
Q

Discuss the role of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in intercellular signaling. How does the CAMP pathway amplify signals within the cell?

A

GPCRs play a crucial role in intercellular signaling by activating G proteins that trigger intracellular signaling cascades. The CAMP pathway is one such cascade where a ligand binds to a GPCR

217
Q

Describe the process of lipophilic messenger signaling in intercellular communication. How do lipophilic messengers interact with target cells compared to lipophobic messengers?

A

Lipophilic messengers

218
Q

Explain the significance of membrane receptors in intercellular signaling. Compare and contrast ligand-gated channels

A

enzyme-linked receptors

219
Q

Discuss the types of chemical messengers involved in intercellular communication. How do lipophobic messengers differ from lipophilic messengers in terms of their properties and signaling mechanisms?

A

Chemical messengers include amino acids

220
Q

How do gap junctions and chemical messengers contribute to intercellular communication? Compare and contrast their roles in signaling between cells.

A

Gap junctions directly connect some cells

221
Q

Endocrine System

A

All cells and tissues of the body that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

222
Q

Hormones

A

Ligands that bind receptors on or in cells and can act at distant targets in small concentrations.

223
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

Include insulin

224
Q

Steroid Hormones

A

Include cortisol

225
Q

Amine Hormones

A

A type of hormone that is lipophobic.

226
Q

Primary Endocrine Organs

A

Organs whose main function is to secrete hormones; e.g.

227
Q

Secondary Endocrine Organs

A

Organs that also secrete hormones

228
Q

ex. heart

A

liver

229
Q

What hormone is released when the body is stressed?

A

Cortisol

230
Q

What are the effects of cortisol on the body?

A

Stimulates breakdown of proteins and fats for energy

231
Q

Hypothalamus

A

links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

232
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

Consists of the anterior pituitary that releases hormones like prolactin

233
Q

Posterior Pituitary

A

Releases peptide hormones like ADH (antidiuretic) and oxytocin into capillary

234
Q

Anterior Pituitary

A

Contains actual endocrine cells that make their own hormones; regulated by hypothalamic hormones (tropic) which signal to anterior pituitary to release 2nd hormone to rest of the body

235
Q

Tropic Hormone

A

Hormones that regulate the release of other hormones; most hormones in the anterior pituitary are tropic.

236
Q

HPA Axis

A

An endocrine pathway involving the Hypothalamus

237
Q

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

A

Stimulates adrenal cortex to release cortisol

238
Q

CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone)

A

released by hypothalamus; stimulates release of ACTH

239
Q

Adrenal Cortex

A

Located on top of the kidneys

240
Q

Cortisol Function

A

Stimulates the breakdown of fats and proteins for energy

241
Q

What is hypersecretion of cortisol?

A

It leads to too much secretion of cortisol.

242
Q

What is hypo secretion of cortisol?

A

It leads to not enough secretion of cortisol.

243
Q

What can cause abnormal secretion of cortisol?

A

It is often caused by tumors of endocrine cells.

244
Q

Stereotype Threat

A

Mild levels of stress can enhance the ability to form memories

245
Q

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

A

secreted by the posterior pituitary gland

246
Q

Discuss the role of the hypothalamus in regulating the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.

A

The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. It releases hormones that signal the anterior pituitary to produce and release hormones such as prolactin

247
Q

Explain the difference between lipophobic and lipophilic hormones

A

providing examples of each type.

248
Q

Describe the function of cortisol in the body and how it is regulated by the HPA axis.

A

Cortisol plays a vital role in the body’s response to stress. It helps regulate metabolism

249
Q

Discuss the impact of abnormal cortisol secretion on the body

A

including hypersecretion and hypo secretion.

250
Q

Explain the concept of stereotype threat and its relationship to cortisol levels in the body.

A

Stereotype threat refers to the risk of confirming negative stereotypes about a group to which an individual belongs. When individuals experience stereotype threat

251
Q

Describe the two-step process involved in the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.

A

The release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland involves a two-step process. First

252
Q

portal system

A

consists of two capillary beds in series through which blood must travel before returning to the heart

253
Q

Gametes

A

Sex cells (sperm or egg) that carry one copy of the genome

254
Q

Zygote

A

Diploid cell formed by the fusion of gametes during fertilization

255
Q

Sperm is produced in the _____ of the testes

A

and as it travels to the penis

256
Q

What are the components of semen?

A

Secretions from seminal vesicles

257
Q

What is the role of semen?

A

Provides nutrients and a suitable environment for sperm

258
Q

What are some components found in semen?

A

High pH

259
Q

Sperm production is regulated by…

A

testosterone

260
Q

How does birth control work..

A

negative feedback onto the anterior pituitary to lower secretion of LH and FSH

261
Q

Main functions of reproductive system

A
  1. producing gametes (sperm and eggs)
262
Q

haploid vs diploid

A

one set of chromosomes vs two sets of chromosomes

263
Q

Gonads

A

ovaries and testes

264
Q

reproductive tract

A

series of tubes that transport gametes from gonads

265
Q

scrotum

A

External sac that contains the testes

266
Q

What path do sperm take through the male reproductive system?

A

seminiferous tubules -> epididymus -> vas deferens ->ejaculatory duct -> urethra -> penis

267
Q

FSH

A

Follicle-stimulating hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland

268
Q

GnRH

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone released by hypothalamus and stimulates anterior pituitary to release the release of FSH and LH

269
Q

What does LH stand for?

A

Luteinizing hormone

270
Q

What is the role of LH in females?

A

Triggers ovulation

271
Q

What is the role of LH in males?

A

Stimulates the release of testosterone

272
Q

Estrogen

A

Female sex hormone produced by the ovaries that regulates the menstrual cycle

273
Q

Progesterone

A

Female sex hormone that prepares the uterus for pregnancy and maintains pregnancy

274
Q

Hormones

A

Chemical messengers that regulate various physiological functions in the body

275
Q

Epididymis

A

Coiled tube where sperm are stored and matured before ejaculation

276
Q

Vas Deferens

A

Duct that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation

277
Q

Ovary

A

Female reproductive organ that produces eggs and sex hormones

278
Q

Menstrual Cycle

A

Monthly series of hormonal and structural changes in the reproductive system affecting both the uterus and ovaries

279
Q

Corpus Luteum

A

Temporary endocrine structure in the ovary that secretes hormones to support pregnancy

280
Q

Follicular Phase

A

FSH stimulates follicle growth

281
Q

Ovulation Phase

A

mature follicle ruptures in response to a surge of LH

282
Q

Luteal Phase

A

ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum

283
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Brain region that controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland

284
Q

FSH/LH

A

Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone that regulate the menstrual cycle in females and production of testosterone in males

285
Q

How is testosterone regulated?

A

exerts negative feedback on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland to keep amount made in balance

286
Q

Where do eggs mature?

A

follicles located in the ovaries

287
Q

After ovulation where does the egg enter?

A

The fallopian tube

288
Q

What is the uterus made of?

A

smooth muscle (myometrium) & endometrium (provides nutritional support to potential embryo)

289
Q

ovarian cycle

A

includes follicular phase

290
Q

uterine cycle

A

menstrual phase

291
Q

Menstrual Phase

A

endometrium is shed when corpus luteum degenerates; estrogen and progesterone decrease causing menstruation

292
Q

Proliferative Phase

A

endometrium regenerates; new layers and blood vessels grow

293
Q

Secretory Phase

A

endometrium begins to release mucus

294
Q

What 4 main hormones regulate the menstrual cycle?

A

FSH

295
Q

In the early follicular phase what hormone level increases?

A

FSH

296
Q

After 1 follicle becomes dominant & others die off

A

what occurs?

297
Q

When estrogen levels rise because of mature follicle

A

what occurs?

298
Q

Increasing estrogen switches to a + fb loop causing a surge in ____ leading to ___________.

A

LH

299
Q

When luteal phase begins estrogen ___________

A

decreases

300
Q

Once formed

A

corpus luteum secretes

301
Q

Discuss the process of sperm production in the male reproductive system

A

including the role of testosterone and the pathway of sperm from the testes to the urethra.

302
Q

Explain the hormonal regulation of sperm production

A

including the role of Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) and the feedback loop involving the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland.

303
Q

Describe the menstrual cycle in females

A

detailing the ovarian and uterine cycles

304
Q

Discuss the hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle

A

focusing on the roles of LH

305
Q

Explain the process of egg production in the female reproductive system

A

detailing the maturation of eggs in the ovaries and the pathway of eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.

306
Q

Describe the role of estrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle

A

including their effects on the endometrium and the feedback loop involving the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland.

307
Q

Why is there an increase of FSH at the beginning of the follicular phase?

A

at the end of previous cycle

mcb 32 exam 1 (1 decks)

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