ML Final

Question 1

•define transfer of learning as it applies to motor learning

Answer 1

• Influence of previous experience on:

• Performing the same skill in a new context
• Learning a new skill

• This influence can result in the following:

• Positive transfer
• Negative transfer
• Zero transfer

Question 2

• define positive transfer

Answer 2

Positive Transfer •

-When previous experience facilitates performance of the same skill in a new context or the learning of a new skill

Question 3

• define negative transfer

Answer 3

Negative Transfer •
- When previous experience hinders or interferes with the performance of the same skill in a new context or the learning of a new skill

Question 4

• define zero transfer

Answer 4

Zero Transfer •
When previous experience has no influence on the performance of the same skill in a new context or the learning of a new skill

Question 5

• identify 2 reasons why positive transfer occurs

Answer 5

1. Similarity between the component parts of two skills or two performance contexts
   • The more traditional view of why positive transfer occurs
   • More similar the component parts, greater likelihood of positive transfer
   • A theory to explain this transfer effect:
   • Identical elements theory (Thorndike, 1914)
2. Similarity between the cognitive processes required of two skills or two performance contexts
   • A theory to explain this transfer effect:
   • Transfer-appropriate processing theory (Brandsford et al., 1979)

Question 6

• describe identical elements theory and transfer appropriate processing theory

Answer 6

Identical Elements Theory
• What are ‘elements’?
• General characteristics of a skill or performance context (e.g., purpose of the skill) OR
• Specific characteristics of the skill (e.g., components of the skill being performed) AND
• Mental processes that share the same brain cell activity as the physical action

Transfer-Appropriate Processing Theory
• Similarity in cognitive processing elements
– Similar processing activities
• Argue that similarity in component parts can only explain some of the positive transfer effects

Question 7

• describe 2 situations in which negative transfer arises***

Answer 7

1. Change in spatial location of movement

2. Change in the timing structure of movement

Question 8

• identify 3 reasons why negative transfer occurs

Answer 8

1. Memory representation
   • Develop as a result of learning a skill
   • Practice in one specific way
   • Create a representation for perceptual characteristics of the task and an appropriate motor response
   • This is ingrained in your memory
2. Cognitive confusion
   • Person does not know what to do in a new performance context
   • Interference in thought process
   • “What am I supposed to do?”
   • Confusion created by unfamiliarity of situation
3. Competition between the learner’s intrinsic dynamics and task dynamics
   • Task-specific coordination tendencies are ‘components’ that can be transferred
   • Can make the learning of new patterns of coordination difficult

Question 9

• explain why transfer of learning is an important concept in motor
Learning

Answer 9

1. Sequencing skills to be learned
   • Simple-to-complex sequence
   • Develop/master basic skills before more complex skills
2. Gentile’s taxonomy to develop skill progression
   • 16 skill categories
   • Underpins evaluation and instructional decisions
   • Important tool for movement practitioners with respect to the acquisition and performance of motor skills
   • Practical use
   • Systematic basis for selecting progressions of functionally appropriate activities to:
   • Increase performance capabilities
   • Overcome performance deficiencies
3. Assessing the effectiveness of practice conditions
   • Observing performance only in practice could overestimate or underestimate learning
   • Performance on transfer test provides the best assessment of learning
   • Transfer tests can determine the impact of instruction, method, or protocol

Question 10

• describe the difference between symmetric and asymmetric bilateral transfer

Answer 10

• Asymmetric transfer:
bilateral transfer in which there is a greater amount of transfer from one limb than from the other

• Symmetric transfer:
bilateral transfer in which the amount of transfer is similar from one limb to the other, regardless of which was used first

Question 11

• identify 2 types of research evidence that support what an observer perceives from demonstration

Answer 11

• Visual perception of human motion

- Influence of demonstration on learning a complex skill

Question 12

• explain the benefits of novices observing skilled experts and novices observing other novices

Answer 12

Novices-Novices
– Encourages active problem-solving
– Deters imitation

Novices-Experts
-– Observer perceives invariant movement patterns of skill
• These patterns will only be observed with a correctly performed skill
– Possible strategic approaches to movement problems

Question 13

• identify/describe 2 theories which account for why demonstration helps someone learn

Answer 13

–>Cognitive mediation theory
Perception → cognitive practicing → action

– Observe the model
– Code and form a cognitive memory representation of the movement
– Brain can rehearse and organize movement information
– Representation serves to guide future movement attempts

–>Dynamic view of modeling
Perception→ Action

– Visual system plays an important role in observational learning
– It automatically processes observed movement and provides basis for coordination and control
– Action is executed according to visual information directly received
– No need for cognitive coding

Question 14

• identify 4 attention-related factors to consider when formulating verbal instructions

Answer 14

1• Quantity of information
2• Focusing attention on movement outcomes
3• Awareness of regulatory conditions
4• Goal achievement strategies

Question 15

• define verbal cues and provide

Answer 15

-Verbal instructions that may provide too little or too much information
– Verbal cues are an alternative
• What purpose do they serve?
– Direct attention to specific features of their movement, an object, or the environment (regulatory conditions of environmental context)
– Act as reminders of critical features or parts of the skill

Question 16

examples of how verbal cues can be used in skill learning

Answer 16

• How can verbal cues be given or used?
– Verbal cues along with a demonstration
– To direct attention to critical parts of the skill
– To prompt movements while performing a skill

Question 17

•distinguish task-intrinsic from augmented feedback

Answer 17

Task-Intrinsic Feedback 
•sensory information that arises from the production of movements 
• Visual • Auditory 
• Proprioception 
• Tactile

Augmented Feedback
• Movement-related information provided to the learner by some external source (e.g., stopwatch)
• Adds to or enhances task-intrinsic feedback
• Under the control of the instructor or the therapist

Question 18

• define KR and KP and give an example of each

Answer 18

Knowledge of Results (KR)
• Information about a response (performance outcome) that is obtainable by means of an external source
• How successful were one’s actions with respect to the intended environmental goal?
• Aim of this information is to improve the next response
• Successful responses identified and repeated in order to achieve greater precision
Tells you what happened “you ran the 100 m sprint in 50 seconds”

Knowledge of Performance (KP)
• Information about the quality of the movement used to achieve the goal (e.g., joint range of movement)
• Often used in real-world settings
Tells you how it happened “keep your head down and your eyes on the ball”

Question 19

• identify the two roles AF play in the skill learning process

Answer 19

1.Facilitates Achievement of the Action Goal
• To perform this skill correctly, are my movements appropriate?
• Want to provide learner with information about pattern of movements
• Keeps error to a minimum
• Corrects error more quickly
• Brings movement pattern closer to goal action
• Feedback can focus learner’s attention on the desired outcome

2.Motivates the Learner
• Motivation strongly linked to goal achievement
• What does motivating feedback give to the learner?
• Information about progress leads to greater effort during task practice
• Greater effort during task practice leads to greater future learning
• Augmented feedback helpful source of information when minimal progress is being made towards achieving one’s goal

Question 20

• describe four different ways AF is needed for skill learning

Answer 20

1. It can be essential for skill acquisition
2. It may not be necessary for skill acquisition
3. It can enhance skill acquisition
4. It can hinder or slow skill acquisition

Question 21

• outline the five content issues related to AF

Answer 21

1. Information about errors vs. correct
   aspects of performance
2. KR vs. KP
3. Qualitative vs. quantitative information
4. Augmented feedback based on error size
5. Erroneous augmented feedback

Question 22

• describe the techniques used to reduce AF frequency

Answer 22

Performance-Based Bandwidths
• Given to learners only when their errors exceed a certain tolerance level
• Decreases dependency on augmented feedback as one becomes more skilled
• Over time, task-intrinsic feedback becomes more important
• Form of negative reinforcement
• When behaviour increases because a stimulus is removed
• Promotes consistency

Self-Selected Frequency
• Learner decides when they will receive feedback
• Learner becomes active in learning process
• Beginners tend to ask for feedback after successful trials
• Why?
• Realize they have made a mistake and try to problem solve on unsuccessful trials
• Motivates them and provides them with reinforcement

Question 23

define practice variability

Answer 23

• Refers to practicing a skill using a variety of different movements and context characteristics
• What benefit would this have? – Schmidt’s schema theory (1975)
• Provides the learner with a broader range of movement experiences
• This is the basis for the development of a set of rules for actions (i.e., schemas)

Question 24

distinguish between variable and constant practice

Answer 24

Constant practice:
a practice sequence in which performers rehearse only one variation of the skill

Variable practice:
a practice sequence in which performers rehearse several variations of the skill – E.g., changing the speed of the skill, throwing at various distances or targets

Question 25

describe evidence for the benefits of practice variability

Answer 25

• Shea & Kohl (1990, 1991)
– Goal: use 175N of force to squeeze a handle
– Two experimental groups:
• Constant practice: 175N for 289 trials
• Variable practice: 125, 150, 200 and 225 N (no 175N) for 289 trials

• Shoenfelt et al. (2002)
– Task: basketball free throws
– Four experimental groups:
• Constant practice: shoot from the free throw line only
• Variable practice A: 2 ft in front and behind the free throw line
• Variable practice B: 2 ft in front, behind, and at the free throw line
• Variable practice C: from the left/right elbow and top of the key

Question 26

describe how variable practice can be organized using blocked and random practice

Answer 26

Blocked practice: a practice sequence in which performers repeatedly rehearse one skill

Random practice:
a practice sequence in which performers perform a number of different skills in no particular order
– Avoids or minimizes consecutive repetitions of any skill

Question 27

describe the practice specificity hypothesis

Practice Specificity

Answer 27

• Specificity of practice hypothesis: test performance is directly related to the similarity between characteristics of practice and test conditions
• Identical elements theory: the more similar the elements of two skills, or two variations of the same skill are, the greater the positive transfer between the two