ML Final Flashcards
•define transfer of learning as it applies to motor learning
• Influence of previous experience on:
- Performing the same skill in a new context
- Learning a new skill
• This influence can result in the following:
- Positive transfer
- Negative transfer
- Zero transfer
• define positive transfer
Positive Transfer •
-When previous experience facilitates performance of the same skill in a new context or the learning of a new skill
• define negative transfer
Negative Transfer •
- When previous experience hinders or interferes with the performance of the same skill in a new context or the learning of a new skill
• define zero transfer
Zero Transfer •
When previous experience has no influence on the performance of the same skill in a new context or the learning of a new skill
• identify 2 reasons why positive transfer occurs
- Similarity between the component parts of two skills or two performance contexts
• The more traditional view of why positive transfer occurs
• More similar the component parts, greater likelihood of positive transfer
• A theory to explain this transfer effect:
• Identical elements theory (Thorndike, 1914) - Similarity between the cognitive processes required of two skills or two performance contexts
• A theory to explain this transfer effect:
• Transfer-appropriate processing theory (Brandsford et al., 1979)
• describe identical elements theory and transfer appropriate processing theory
Identical Elements Theory
• What are ‘elements’?
• General characteristics of a skill or performance context (e.g., purpose of the skill) OR
• Specific characteristics of the skill (e.g., components of the skill being performed) AND
• Mental processes that share the same brain cell activity as the physical action
Transfer-Appropriate Processing Theory
• Similarity in cognitive processing elements
– Similar processing activities
• Argue that similarity in component parts can only explain some of the positive transfer effects
• describe 2 situations in which negative transfer arises***
- Change in spatial location of movement
2. Change in the timing structure of movement
• identify 3 reasons why negative transfer occurs
- Memory representation
• Develop as a result of learning a skill
• Practice in one specific way
• Create a representation for perceptual characteristics of the task and an appropriate motor response
• This is ingrained in your memory - Cognitive confusion
• Person does not know what to do in a new performance context
• Interference in thought process
• “What am I supposed to do?”
• Confusion created by unfamiliarity of situation - Competition between the learner’s intrinsic dynamics and task dynamics
• Task-specific coordination tendencies are ‘components’ that can be transferred
• Can make the learning of new patterns of coordination difficult
• explain why transfer of learning is an important concept in motor
Learning
- Sequencing skills to be learned
• Simple-to-complex sequence
• Develop/master basic skills before more complex skills - Gentile’s taxonomy to develop skill progression
• 16 skill categories
• Underpins evaluation and instructional decisions
• Important tool for movement practitioners with respect to the acquisition and performance of motor skills
• Practical use
• Systematic basis for selecting progressions of functionally appropriate activities to:
• Increase performance capabilities
• Overcome performance deficiencies - Assessing the effectiveness of practice conditions
• Observing performance only in practice could overestimate or underestimate learning
• Performance on transfer test provides the best assessment of learning
• Transfer tests can determine the impact of instruction, method, or protocol
• describe the difference between symmetric and asymmetric bilateral transfer
• Asymmetric transfer:
bilateral transfer in which there is a greater amount of transfer from one limb than from the other
• Symmetric transfer:
bilateral transfer in which the amount of transfer is similar from one limb to the other, regardless of which was used first
• identify 2 types of research evidence that support what an observer perceives from demonstration
- Visual perception of human motion
- Influence of demonstration on learning a complex skill
• explain the benefits of novices observing skilled experts and novices observing other novices
Novices-Novices
– Encourages active problem-solving
– Deters imitation
Novices-Experts
-– Observer perceives invariant movement patterns of skill
• These patterns will only be observed with a correctly performed skill
– Possible strategic approaches to movement problems
• identify/describe 2 theories which account for why demonstration helps someone learn
–>Cognitive mediation theory
Perception → cognitive practicing → action
– Observe the model
– Code and form a cognitive memory representation of the movement
– Brain can rehearse and organize movement information
– Representation serves to guide future movement attempts
–>Dynamic view of modeling
Perception→ Action
– Visual system plays an important role in observational learning
– It automatically processes observed movement and provides basis for coordination and control
– Action is executed according to visual information directly received
– No need for cognitive coding
• identify 4 attention-related factors to consider when formulating verbal instructions
1• Quantity of information
2• Focusing attention on movement outcomes
3• Awareness of regulatory conditions
4• Goal achievement strategies
• define verbal cues and provide
-Verbal instructions that may provide too little or too much information
– Verbal cues are an alternative
• What purpose do they serve?
– Direct attention to specific features of their movement, an object, or the environment (regulatory conditions of environmental context)
– Act as reminders of critical features or parts of the skill
examples of how verbal cues can be used in skill learning
• How can verbal cues be given or used?
– Verbal cues along with a demonstration
– To direct attention to critical parts of the skill
– To prompt movements while performing a skill
•distinguish task-intrinsic from augmented feedback
Task-Intrinsic Feedback •sensory information that arises from the production of movements • Visual • Auditory • Proprioception • Tactile
Augmented Feedback
• Movement-related information provided to the learner by some external source (e.g., stopwatch)
• Adds to or enhances task-intrinsic feedback
• Under the control of the instructor or the therapist
• define KR and KP and give an example of each
Knowledge of Results (KR)
• Information about a response (performance outcome) that is obtainable by means of an external source
• How successful were one’s actions with respect to the intended environmental goal?
• Aim of this information is to improve the next response
• Successful responses identified and repeated in order to achieve greater precision
Tells you what happened “you ran the 100 m sprint in 50 seconds”
Knowledge of Performance (KP)
• Information about the quality of the movement used to achieve the goal (e.g., joint range of movement)
• Often used in real-world settings
Tells you how it happened “keep your head down and your eyes on the ball”
• identify the two roles AF play in the skill learning process
1.Facilitates Achievement of the Action Goal
• To perform this skill correctly, are my movements appropriate?
• Want to provide learner with information about pattern of movements
• Keeps error to a minimum
• Corrects error more quickly
• Brings movement pattern closer to goal action
• Feedback can focus learner’s attention on the desired outcome
2.Motivates the Learner
• Motivation strongly linked to goal achievement
• What does motivating feedback give to the learner?
• Information about progress leads to greater effort during task practice
• Greater effort during task practice leads to greater future learning
• Augmented feedback helpful source of information when minimal progress is being made towards achieving one’s goal
• describe four different ways AF is needed for skill learning
- It can be essential for skill acquisition
- It may not be necessary for skill acquisition
- It can enhance skill acquisition
- It can hinder or slow skill acquisition
• outline the five content issues related to AF
- Information about errors vs. correct
aspects of performance - KR vs. KP
- Qualitative vs. quantitative information
- Augmented feedback based on error size
- Erroneous augmented feedback
• describe the techniques used to reduce AF frequency
Performance-Based Bandwidths
• Given to learners only when their errors exceed a certain tolerance level
• Decreases dependency on augmented feedback as one becomes more skilled
• Over time, task-intrinsic feedback becomes more important
• Form of negative reinforcement
• When behaviour increases because a stimulus is removed
• Promotes consistency
Self-Selected Frequency
• Learner decides when they will receive feedback
• Learner becomes active in learning process
• Beginners tend to ask for feedback after successful trials
• Why?
• Realize they have made a mistake and try to problem solve on unsuccessful trials
• Motivates them and provides them with reinforcement
define practice variability
- Refers to practicing a skill using a variety of different movements and context characteristics
- What benefit would this have? – Schmidt’s schema theory (1975)
- Provides the learner with a broader range of movement experiences
- This is the basis for the development of a set of rules for actions (i.e., schemas)
distinguish between variable and constant practice
Constant practice:
a practice sequence in which performers rehearse only one variation of the skill
Variable practice:
a practice sequence in which performers rehearse several variations of the skill – E.g., changing the speed of the skill, throwing at various distances or targets
describe evidence for the benefits of practice variability
• Shea & Kohl (1990, 1991)
– Goal: use 175N of force to squeeze a handle
– Two experimental groups:
• Constant practice: 175N for 289 trials
• Variable practice: 125, 150, 200 and 225 N (no 175N) for 289 trials
• Shoenfelt et al. (2002)
– Task: basketball free throws
– Four experimental groups:
• Constant practice: shoot from the free throw line only
• Variable practice A: 2 ft in front and behind the free throw line
• Variable practice B: 2 ft in front, behind, and at the free throw line
• Variable practice C: from the left/right elbow and top of the key
describe how variable practice can be organized using blocked and random practice
Blocked practice: a practice sequence in which performers repeatedly rehearse one skill
Random practice:
a practice sequence in which performers perform a number of different skills in no particular order
– Avoids or minimizes consecutive repetitions of any skill
describe the practice specificity hypothesis
Practice Specificity
- Specificity of practice hypothesis: test performance is directly related to the similarity between characteristics of practice and test conditions
- Identical elements theory: the more similar the elements of two skills, or two variations of the same skill are, the greater the positive transfer between the two
