Misc Flashcards
1
Q
Botox
A
Acetylcholine antagonist
2
Q
Sperry and Gazzaniga
A
Corpus callosum removal –> split brain
3
Q
Pleasure centers
A
Nucleus accumbens
Septal area
4
Q
Hypothalamus
A
Osmoregulation
Controls endocrine system
Body temp, hunger, thirst, libido
5
Q
What hormone is linked to depression and mania?
A
Norepinephrine
6
Q
What drug can be used to treat Parkinson’s?
A
L-Dopa
7
Q
Who theorized spreading activation model?
A
Collins and Loftus
8
Q
Who coined the term icons in visual memory?
A
Ulric Neisser
9
Q
Who studied patient HM?
A
Brenda Milner
10
Q
Who theorized levels-of-processing theory?
A
Craik and Lockhart
11
Q
Who discovered that memories are distributed to various areas of the cortex?
A
Karl Lashley
12
Q
What is limit to chunking?
A
7 +/- 2
13
Q
Who is associated with chunking?
A
George Miller
14
Q
Who provided support for Hebbian theory?
A
Kandel– aplaysia slugs
15
Q
Who studied iconic memory and capacity of sensory store?
A
Sperling
16
Q
Generation-recognition model
A
Easier to recognize something than generate it
17
Q
Who theorized dual-coding theory?
A
Paivio
18
Q
Who devised term schizophrenia?
A
Bleuler
19
Q
Computer simulation models to solve problems like humans
A
Logical theorist
General problem solver
20
Q
7 biggest changes from DSM-IV to DSM-V
A
1) No axial system
2) 4 separately classified issues unified under “autism spectrum disorder”
3) Elimination of childhood bipolar disorder and replacement with Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD; extreme temper outbursts)
4) Relaxing strictness of ADHD diagnosis –> adults can be diagnosed if they have fewer signs and symptoms than children (given more developed brains thus more impulse control)
5) Nuance for children with PTSD and 4 main types of symptoms
- Arousal
- Avoidance
- Flashbacks
- Negative impacts on thought patterns and mood
6) New category: Neurocognitive disorder (major and mild) to reflect dementia and amnestic disorders (memory and learning difficulties)
7) Depression disorders no longer have bereavement exclusion
21
Q
Cingulate gyrus
A
- Directing attention and emotion
- Part of telencephalon
22
Q
Types of representative heuristic
A
Base rate fallacy
Conjunction fallacy
Gamblers fallacy
Regression to the mean
23
Q
Representative heuristic
A
cognitive shortcut made when individuals assess the frequency of a particular event based solely on the generalization of a previous similar event
24
Q
Over justification theory
A
The overjustification effect occurs when external rewards diminish intrinsic motivations
25
Who: study of behavior toward Asians in America in the 1930s (attitude does not dictate behavior)
Richard LaPiere
26
Who: $1 and $20 cognitive dissonance study
Festinger and Carlsmith
27
Attribution theory
How we understand behaviors and causes of events
28
Morton Deutsch
Prisoners dilemma and trucking company game study
29
Who: elaboration likelihood model
Petty and cacioppo
30
Who: inoculation theory (beliefs)
McGuire
31
Who: antisocial behavior increased in densely populated areas
Zimbardo
32
Who: group polarization and risky shift
James Stoner
33
Who: doll study on segregation
Kenneth and Mamie Clark
34
Who: two coping differentiations
Richard Lazarus
35
Who: stress levels in differently shaped rooms (environment affects behavior)
Stuart Valins
36
Who: belief similarity > race similarity
M. Rokeach
37
Who: theory of reasoned action (explains difference between belief and action)
Fischbein and Azjen
38
Contact theory
- Sherif
| - Minimizing prejudice through cooperation (superordinate goals)
39
Who: bystander effect
Darley and Latane
40
Who: 3 parts of attribution theory (consensus, distinctiveness, consistency)
Harold Kelley
Attributions we make about our own actions and those of others are usually accurate
41
Who: mental testing in military and psychology in advertising
Walter Dill Scott
42
Who: role theory
Bindle
43
Who: empathy-altruism hypothesis
Batson
44
Proxemics
Study of personal space
45
Who: stimulus overload theory (why people in densely populated areas are less prosocial)
Milgram
46
Who: Hawthorne Effect; when
Henry Landsberger; 1955
47
Actor-observer bias vs. fundamental attribution error
Fundamental attribution error: *thinking about other people's behavior*
Placing greater emphasis on internal characteristics and ignoring external factors for other's behavior
Actor-observer bias: *thinking about our own behavior*
Overemphasizing role of situational factors, and underestimating internal characteristics in our own behavior
48
Synonymous terms for fundamental attribution error
- Correspondence bias
| - Attribution effect
49
Social interaction theory
Interactions maximize rewards/gains and minimize cost
50
Who: studies on social facilitation (cockroaches)
Zajonc
51
Who: frustration-aggression hypothesis
Berkowitz
52
Who: two types of love (passionate and compassionate)
Elaine Hatfield
53
Who: study of people defending incorrect answers
Lee Ross
54
Who: self-perception theory
Bem
55
Who: 6 basic emotions
Ekman
56
Who: mental processes shape preferences subconsciously
Nesbitt
57
Who: balance theory and attribution theory
Heider
58
Who: transformational grammar
Noam Chomsky
59
Synonym for Whorfian hypothesis
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
60
Who: research on Hopi language
Benjamin Whorf --> Whorfian hypothesis
61
Who: he found that children improve their understanding of language and grammar as they hypothesize about syntax and synthesize those hypotheses with their real-world language experience
Roger Brown
62
Who: Children learn language more rapidly after the onset of speech production (active speech) than they do while simply hearing it
Katherine Nelson
63
Who: They found that word meanings are different for different people, affected by life experience
Vygotsky and Luria
64
Who: semantic differential charts
Charles Osgood
65
How many pairs of chromosomes does a human have?
23
66
Gene that causes Huntington's is dominant; If one parent has Huntington's, what is the chance of the child developing the disorder?
50%
67
Ions crucial for resting potential
Sodium and Potassium
68
Estrus
Female mammals; phase of sexual receptivity
-Humans have menstrual cycle instead of estrous cycle
69
Genome
Catalog of all the genes of a species
Whereas genotype is the variation of those genes in one individual
70
Zeigarnik effect
We remember unfinished tasks better than completed tasks
71
Who: 3 personality types based on body types
Sheldon
72
Who: adult personality formed from interactions between the child and the parent as the child deals with basic anxiety
Karen Horney
73
Carl Jung's theory of personality
based on the idea that the mind comprises pairs of opposing forces
-Analytic psychodynamic theory
74
Who: cardinal, central, and secondary traits
Allport
75
Who: self-efficacy central to personality
Bandura
76
Who: conditions of worth
Rogers
77
Who: locus of control theory
Rotter
78
Who: personal construct theory
Kelly
79
Who: field dependence
Witkin
80
Circular reactions
- Sensorimotor stage
- Piaget
- Repeated behaviors through which the infant manipulates the environment
81
At what age does theory of mind develop?
Age 4
82
Who: five stages of grief
Kubler-Ross
83
Who: three kinds of infant temperaments (easy, slow to warm, difficult)
Thomas and Chess
84
Who: deaf children babbling with hands
Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols
85
When is conservation developed?
Concrete operational stage
86
When is object permanence developed?
Pre-operational stage
87
Who: zone of proximal development
Vygotsky
88
Between what ages is autonomy vs shame and doubt?
1.5-3
89
Between what ages is initiative vs guilt?
3-6
90
Ages of Piaget's stages?
Sensorimotor: first two years
Pre-operational: 2-7
Concrete operational: 7-12
Formal operational: 12+ years
91
Who: strange situation (attachment patterns) and age of infants
Ainsworth
| Age: 8 months-2 years (period of stranger and separation anxiety)
92
When does postconventional morality begin?
Around 16
93
When does preconventional morality occur?
7-10
94
At what age does gender labeling occur?
2-3
95
At what age does gender stability occur?
3-4
96
At what age does gender consistency occur?
4-7
97
Gender schematic processing theory
Martin and Haverson
98
Who: British empiricist school of thought that believed experience is forefront for knowledge
Hume
Hobbes
Berkeley
Mill
99
Who: analyzing infant cries
Wolff
100
Major depression
```
Must last two or more weeks
Must be associated with both situational and biological factors
-At least five of
1) Depressed mood
2) Loss of pleasure in once enjoyable activities
3) Restlessness
4) Hypersomnia or insomnia
5) Weight gain or loss
6) Possible suicidal ideation
7) Difficulty concentrating
8) Loss of energy
9) Low self-worth
```
101
Neologism
Newly coined word or phrase
| -Characteristic of disorganized thought
102
Who: study with confederates entering mental hospital
Rosenhan
103
Who: learned helplessness experiment with dogs
Seligman
104
Who elaborated on Tyron's experiment?
Cooper and Zubek
105
Who: raccoon and piggy bank (instinctual drift)
Keller and Marion Breland
106
Gestalt psychologists
Wertheimer
Kohler
Koffka
107
Believes in monism
Aristotle
Hobbes
Locke
Believe in nurture (nature vs. nurture)
108
Believers in dualism
Descartes
Plato
Believe in nature (nature vs. nurture)
109
What did Descartes consider the mind?
Pineal gland
110
Who: founder of experimental psychology
Fechner
111
What perceptual phenomenon is caused by light and shadow?
Bumps and craters
112
What has longest wavelength and lowest frequency in roygbiv?
Red
113
Phi phenomenon
The phi phenomenon is the optical illusion of perceiving a series of still images, when viewed in rapid succession, as continuous motion. Max Wertheimer defined this phenomenon in 1912
114
Avoidance vs escape conditioning
Avoidance: to avoid an aversive stimulus (aka before it begins)
Escape: to stop an aversive stimulus (aka after it begins)
115
Focus of sternberg's short term memory research
Whether memory search processes are parallel or serial
Found evidence for serial
116
Divergent thinking/production
Guilford
Generating variety of hypotheses in a given problem situation
-When more than one possibility exists in a situation
117
Cryptomnesia
When someone remembers something without sense of familiarity then misattributes the thought to imagination
118
Anchoring heuristic
During decision making, anchoring occurs when individuals use an initial piece of information to make subsequent judgments. Once an anchor is set, other judgments are made by adjusting away from that anchor, and there is a bias toward interpreting other information around the anchor
119
Interpolation
interpolation is a method of constructing new data points within the range of a discrete set of known data points.
120
Symbolic vs analogical representation
Symbolic: words
Analogical: pictures
121
Baddeley's working memory model
Central executive -->
1) phonological loop: language
2) visuo-spatial sketch pad: visual semantics
3) episodic buffer: short-term episodic memory
122
Characteristics of sign language
- all the combinatorial properties of spoken language (ie. Syntax and morphemes)
- many of the gestures are analogical representations (not symbolic), so the form often resembles it's meaning
123
Von restorff effect
also called the isolation effect, predicts that an item that "stands out like a sore thumb" (called distinctive encoding) is more likely to be remembered than other item
124
Are boys or girls more frequently diagnosed with ADHD?
Boys
125
Are women or men more vulnerable to depression?
Women
Gender-related susceptibility patterns consistent around the world
126
Counter-conditioning
Strong positive reinforcement is pitted against a prominently feared behavior
127
Gesell's maturation steps
```
Rolling over: 2.5 mo
Sit without support: 5-6 mo
Walking while holding furniture: 9 mo
Stand alone: 11.5 mo
Walking alone: 12 mo
```
128
During dating, which relationship takes on critical importance for the adolescent?
Same-sex parent
129
What has been highly correlated with premature birth?
Smoking by mother
130
Hartshorne and May
Children apply situational morality, acting differently in separate situations involving the same moral principle
131
Ages of germinal, embryonic, and fetal period
Germinal: first two weeks
Embryonic: 2-8 weeks
Fetal: 8 weeks until birth
132
Play pattern at 3 years old
Parallel play
133
Critical social development period
Between 6 weeks and 6 months
134
Research on sensation seeks (Anderson, bushman, others)
High levels of aggressiveness and impulsivity
135
Snyder's self-monitoring scale
Measures difference among people in their consistency across different situations
-challenges trait theories
136
Asch experiment properties (how many don't conform, who does not conform)
- 1/3 do not conform
| - naive subjects who call it as they see it will likely remain nonconforming
137
Fiedler leadership research
Most important factor is the match of the leader to the situation
138
Mind guards
Utilize a variety of strategies to control dissent
139
Catharsis aggression theory
Catharsis is when we get rid of negative emotions by engaging in something like art or venting (another source)
140
What did Descartes first conceptualize?
Reflex action
141
Ramon y Cajal
- described structure and function of neurons
- cns as separate but communicating nerve cells
- physiology
142
Penfield
- Studied electrical stimulation in humans
- Raised possibility of helping people to stimulate their own brains via implanted electrodes
- By stimulating the cortex, he created functional maps of motor and somatosensory cortex
143
Sherrington
Introduced the concept of the synapse
144
Loewi
Showed that communication across the synapse is chemical
145
McGaugh
- studied why emotionally arousing events are memorable
- They stimulate
1) norepinephrine synapses which enhances memory storage
2) the sympathetic nervous system, which converts glycogen into glucose and raises blood glucose level, facilitating brain functioning
146
Delgado
dominant animal in a colony can become submissive under certain conditions
147
Olds and Hess
- Pleasure centers in the hypothalamus: a rat will self-administer electric current to these centers
- stimulation of pleasure centers used as positive reinforcement
- Evidence against drive-reduction theory
148
Young-Helmholtz Theory
trichromatic color vision (3 types of cones for blue, green, red)
-challenged by opponent-process theory
149
Effectors
- organs of action
- muscles and glands
- respond to efferent nerve fibers
150
Interneurons
Enables communication between sensory or motor neurons and the CNS
151
Reciprocal inhibition
-process of muscles on one side of a joint relaxing to accommodate contraction on the other side of that joint. -Joints are controlled by two opposing sets of muscles, extensors and flexors
152
Associative inhibition
Difficulty in establishing a new association because of previous associations.
153
Left vs right hemisphere
Left: language, analytic thought, math
Right: spatial ability, creativity
154
Spatial vs temporal summation
Spatial: from multiple neurons
Temporal: from a single neuron
155
Distal vs proximal stimulus (vision)
Distal: external object
Proximal: retinal image
156
Learning acquisition sequency
1) Learning begins with drive
2) Drive needs signals or cues
3) Response to cues
4) Reinforcement
157
Delayed vs trace conditioning
Delay conditioning: CS overlaps with US.
Trace conditioning: CS and US do not overlap
Delay conditioning more effective
158
Illusory conjunction
-when one sees features of two objects in one object
159
Confabulation
memory disturbance
- fabricated, distorted or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world,
- no conscious intention to deceive
160
Pegword
mnemonic using nonsense rhyme
161
Savings method (or relearning)
- Ebbinghaus
- assessing memory by measuring how long it takes to relearn the same set later
- now known as implicit memory (or repetition priming)
162
Memory trace
structural alteration in brain cells after learning.
163
Means-end analysis
-replacing initial problem with series of subproblems
164
Recollection vs familiarity
Recollection: remembering; slow, controlled
Familiarity: knowing; fast, automatic process
165
Memories in connectionist models
Strength of connections between nodes in a distributed network
166
Paired t-test
Analyzes within-subjects comparison of two conditions
167
Parameters vs statistics
Parameters: summarize data for an entire population
Statistics: summarize data from a sample
168
Independent measures
Between-group analysis
169
True or false: the mean always moves in the direction of the distribution's skew
True
170
Critical ratio
(Sample mean - population mean)/standard error of the mean
z-score
171
Standard error
SD of a distribution of sample means
172
Synonym for disorganized schizophrenia
Hebephrenic schizophrenia
173
Trephination
making a hole in the skull of a living person
| -May have been used to treat mental disorders
174
What approach is used throughout hospitals and prisons?
Behavioristic
175
Reality therapy
- Glasser
- Client makes signed contract with therapist
- Reality therapy maintains that the individual is suffering from a socially universal human condition rather than a mental illness
- realism, responsibility, and right-and-wrong
176
Who had an impact on way patients were being treated?
Hippocrates
Pinel
Beers
177
Cephalocaudal
Development from head down
178
Proximodistal
Development from center of torso to extremities
179
When does separation anxiety occur?
8mo-2 years
180
What percentage total body length is a newborn's head?
25%
181
Maslow "D" needs
- Deficiency needs
- Basic four levels of pyramid (aka first 4 in hierarchy)
- Anxiety if not met
182
Eysenck
-Factor analysis
-3 personality dimensions
1) Introversion-extroversion
2) Stability-neuroticism
(first 2 make up personality quadrants)
3) Impulse control-psychoticism
Extroversion: sensation-seeking
183
Fromm
Five types of love
1) Brotherly
2) Motherly
3) Erotic
4) Self
5) Supreme being
Fromm considered brotherly love most powerful
184
Phenomenology
- Study of subjective experience
- Investigation of consciousness
- Insight
- Structuralism
- Individual's unique self
185
Sullivan
Interpersonal therapy
186
Interpersonal psychodynamic therapy
- Sullivan
- Interpersonal relationships define personality
- 3 levels of cognition (prototaxic, parataxic, syntaxic)
1) Prototaxic: experiences that are impossible to put into words
2) Parataxic: experiences that are pre-logical and nearly impossible to accurately communicate to others (included are erroneous assumptions about cause and effect)
3) Syntaxic: experiences that can be accurately communicated to others
- Personifications: people acquire certain images of self and others throughout development stages (aka good mother, bad mother)
187
Personal constructs phenomenological personality theory
-Kelly
we view the world through our own set of glasses
-people can change their view of the world and in turn the way they interact with it, thereby reconstructing themselves
188
Role construct repertory test
- Personal constructs theory (Kelly)
| - identifies the constructs clients use to the construe the world
189
CPC cycle
- Kelly, personal constructs
- Cycle of construction involved in decision-making
1) Circumspection: consider issues propositionally, from a variety of angles
2) Preemption: select the critical issue and eliminate other options from consideration
3) Control: people choose a pole of the construct chosen in the preemption phase of the cycle and act in accordance with that pole
190
Object relations theory
- Klein
- the way people relate to others and situations in their adult lives is shaped by family experiences during infancy
- images of people and events turn into objects in the unconscious that the person carries into adulthood
- good/bad breast-- goal is to tolerate ambiguity
- Based on psychodynamic theory
- Family therapy
191
Types of family therapy
1) Object Relations (Klein)
2) Bowen Theory (Bowen)
3) Communication Theory (Bateson)
4) Structural family (Minuchin)
192
Thurstone's scale
Please check all those statements with which you agree:
____1. I don't approve of something that puts you out of a normal state of mind (3.0)
____2. It has its place (7.1)
193
Likert scale
- Response range encompassed five categories (strongly agree, agree, no opinion, disagree, strongly disagree)
- It is important that a person's score on each individual item in the scale correlate positively with the person's overall score
194
Semantic differential scale
-Osgood
-Person is given a subject followed by a series of bipolar adjectives (good—bad, honest—dishonest)
• Each pole has seven spaces in between; the person places a check in one of these spaces
-Through factor analysis, Osgood discovered three dimensions
• Evaluative (good—bad)
• Activity (active—passive)
• Potency (strong—weak)
-The evaluative scale is the key dimension
195
Guttman's unidimensional approach
- Measures range of depth on a given attitude
- If a subject had a very slight agreement on the attitude dimension, they would agree with the first item on the scale; if they had a stronger agreement, the person might agree with the first two scale items (cumulative: agreement with any item implies agreement with all preceding items)
196
Social distance scale
- Bogardus
- Measures people's willingness to participate in social contacts of varying degrees of closeness with members of diverse social groups (ie. racial and ethnic groups)
197
Cialdini
-Refined Festinger's theory: degree of cognitive dissonance will depend on the strength of that person's need for consistency
198
Aronson
-extended theory of cognitive dissonance to initiation type settings
• If we go through unpleasant behavior in order to meet the requirements for joining a group, we justify having gone through this experience by enhancing the valuation of the group
-people more likely to be attracted to those who evaluate them positively than those who negatively or neutrally evaluate them
199
Determinants of attraction
In order of importance
1) Proximity (Festinger)
2) Are physically attractive
3) Similarity (Newcomb) in attitudes
4) Rewardingness (Aronson); people more likely to be attracted to those who evaluate them positively than those who negatively or neutrally evaluate them
5) Familiarity (Zajonc)
200
Schachter
We like people who agree with us
201
Behavior Exchange Model (or Social Exchange)
-Gergen
-Social attraction calculated by person's rewards from interaction divided by cost of interaction
• When costs exceed rewards, social attraction should decline
• Behavior exchange
202
Gain-Loss Model
- Aronson
| - Evaluation movement from negative to positive led to stronger social attraction than movement from neutral to positive
203
Social comparison model
- Festinger
- Social attraction feeds perceived similarity, which feeds more social attraction, etc.
- People are attracted to those who are perceived to be similar, and they perceive people who they are attracted to as more similar to themselves than is really the case
204
Complementarity Theory
- Winch
| - Intimate relationships require that aspects of personality be complementary
205
Who studied proxemics?
Hall
206
Kinesics
Study of body language
Micro approach: notation system for each aspect of facial expression
Macro approach: general patterns of interaction over a period of time
207
Who studied kinesics?
Birdwhistell (micro approach)
208
Who created balance theory?
Heider and Newcomb
209
Who: foot in the door technique?
Freedman
210
Who: door in the face technique?
Cialdini
211
Who: ask and you shall be given?
- Doob/McLaughlin
| - high likelihood that a person will respond positively to a request on behalf of a charitable cause
212
Who: low-balling
- Doob/McLaughlin
- Tendency to stay with a commitment after the initially low stakes have been raised (ie. agreeing to buy a car for $9000, and then still agreeing to buy the car after the salesman says that $10,000 is actually the lowest he can go)
213
Primacy-recency effect
-Skinner
• If the decision is soon or immediate, the last communicator (recency) is the most influential
• If the decision is distant, primacy is more effective
214
Plomin & Caspi
- Fraternal twin and identical twin personality scales correlation
- Identical twins correlated b/t .4 and .53 on all five measures
- Extraversion and Openness to experience were identical's highest correlations
- Agreeableness was fraternal twins' highest correlation
- Large differences b/t identical and fraternal twins
215
Summatted ratings
Individual item scores correlate positive with overall score
aka Likert scale
216
Gerbner's television viewing study
Heavy viewers
- Greatly overestimate danger when outside the home
- Were desensitized to helping an actual victim of violence
- Were more frequently boys than girls
217
Attachment theory and who
Bowlby
- dynamics of long-term interpersonal relationships between humans
- a strong emotional and physical attachment to at least one primary caregiver is critical to personal development
- Bowlby studied children
218
Dilution effect
Reducing bias by providing more information about person
219
Cialdini litter experiment
Litter prevention most effective when there is a litter-free space except for one pice of paper litter (reminds people that most people are not littering)
220
Theory of association
- Lewin
- Forerunner of behaviorism
- Grouping things together based on the fact that they occur together in time and space
221
Hull's formula for performance
Performance= Drive x Habit
222
Tolman's formula for performance
Performance = expectation x value
expectancy-value theory
People are motivated by goals that they think they can actually meet
223
Vroom
Applied Toman's expectancy-value theory to people in large organizations
Those lowest in status do not expect to receive incentives, thus motivation is low
224
Approach-avoidance conflict
- Neil Miller
- When a goal has both pros and cons
- The further one is from the goal, more one focuses on pros
- Closer one is to the goal, more one focuses on cons
225
Premack principle
People are motivated to do what they do not want to do by rewarding themselves afterward with something they like to do
226
Response learning
-One learns what to do in response to particular triggers (ie. leaving building in response to fire alarm)
227
Perceptual/concept learning
- Learning about something not due to specific S-R chains
| - Aka Tolman's latent learning experiments
228
Autoshaping
-When animal can control its reinforcements through behaviors (like bar pressing or key pecking); shaping its own behavior
229
Garcia effect
- When humans become sick from eating food one time and are never able to eat the food again
- Biological preparedness
230
Positive vs negative transfer
Positive: previous learning that makes it easier to learn another task later
Negative: previous learning that makes it more difficult to learn a new task
231
Learning curve with age
Primed to learn: 3-20
Constant: 20-50
Drop: after 50
232
Girls or boys faster at language learning?
Girls
233
Backward masking
- Ulric Neisser
- When flash of light or new pattern before iconic image fades erases the first image
- works for auditory stimuli
- More successful if it is similar to the original stimulus, and if closer to first stimulus
234
Factors that make memorizing list easier
- Acoustic and semantic dissimilarity
- Brevity
- Familiarity
- Concreteness
- Meaning
- Importance to the subject
235
Tachtiscope
Instrument used in cognitive or memory experiments
| -Presents visual material to subjects for fraction of a second
236
Convergent thinking
- Guilford
| - Type of thinking to find one solution to a problem
237
Mediation
intervening mental process that occurs between stimulus and response
238
Does it take longer to make associations between pictures or between words?
Pictures
239
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
-Physiological responses --> emotion
240
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Emergency theory
| -Emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously
241
Schachter and Singer's cognitive theory of emotion
- Like J-L theory, emotions come from physiological reactions
- However, cognition in between
- Many different situations produce similar bodily reactions
- Cognition we attach to a situation determines which emotion we feel in response to physiological arousal
242
Structuralist vs Gestalt psychology
Structuralist: bottom-up
Gestaltist: top-down
243
Who: color blindness
Helmholtz
244
When is opponent-process theory at work, and when is tri-color theory at work?
Opponent-process theory: lateral geniculate body
| Tri-color theory: retina
245
McCollough effect
after=images
246
Pragnanz
- Gestalt
| - Experience organized as meaningful, symmetrical, and simple whenever possible
247
Ponzo illusion
When two horizontal lines of equal length appear unequal because of two vertical lines that slant inward
/---\
/ --- \
248
Fechner's law
Built on Weber's law (K= change in I/I)
S (sensation strength) = k log R
Strength of a stimulus must be significantly increased to produce a slight different in sensation
249
Theory of Signal Detection
-aka Signal Detection Theory
-J.A. Swet
Motivation as a factor in detecting stimuli
250
Receiver operating characteristic (ROC)
curves that are graphical representations of a subject's sensitivity to a stimulus
251
Traveling wave
Movement of cochlear fluid on the basilar membrane that causes activation of hair cells
252
Path to auditory cortex
Olivary nucleus-- inferior colliculus -- medial geniculate body
253
Who: gate control theory of pain
Melzack and Wall
254
Structures in forebrain
1) Corticospinal tract
2) Diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)
3) Pituitary gland
4) Telencephalon (Limbic system, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus)
5) Cerebral cortex
255
Where: Broca's area and Wernicke's area
Broca: frontal lobe
Wernicke: temporal lobe
256
How many sleep cycles do people complete each night?
4-6
257
How long does each sleep cycle last?
90 minutes
258
Sleep cycles early in the night vs. later in the night
Early in the night: most time spent in stage 4 and 4
| Later in the night: most time spent in stage 2 and REM
259
Thanatos and Eros
- Freud
- Thanatos: the death instinct
- Eros: the lift instinct
260
Psychic determinism
mental processes are not spontaneous but are determined by the unconscious or preexisting mental complexes
-Behavior and dreams are symptoms of underlying unresolved conflict, manifested when the ego does not find acceptable ways to express conflict
261
Who developed free association?
Freud and Breuer
262
Synonymous with catharsis
Abreaction
263
Compensation
Ego defense mechanism
| -Excelling in one area to make up for shortcomings in another
264
Identification
Ego defense mechanism
| -Imitating a central figure in one's life, such as a parent
265
Undoing
Ego defense mechanism
| Performing an often ritualistic activity in order to relieve anxiety about unconscious drives
266
Dreams
Ego defense mechanism
Manifest content: actual content of the dream
Latent content: unconscious forces the dreams are trying to express
267
Screen memory
Memories that serve as representations of important childhood experiences (psychoanalytic theory)
268
Individual theory
- Adler
- People are creative, social, and whole
- Process of "becoming"
- Individual motivated by social needs and feelings of inferiority; will to power (quest for feelings of superiority)
- Healthy individual will pursue goals outside of himself and beneficial to society
Unhealthy individuals: too affected by inferior feelings to pursue will to power; when they do, their goals are likely self-serving
269
Adler's personality typology
1) Ruling-dominant type (choleric): high in activity but low in social contribution; dominant
2) Getting-learning type (phlegmatic): low in activity and high in social contribution; dependent
3) Avoiding type (melancholic): low in activity and low in social contribution; withdrawn
4) Socially useful type (sanguine): high in activity and high in social contribution; healthy
270
Shadow
Jung
| -A person's dark side, often projected onto others
271
Jung's abnormal theory
Psychopathology is signal that something is wrong with the psyche, and provides clues about how one could become more aware
272
Roger's abnormal theory
People who lack congruence between their real selves and their conscious self-concept
273
Genuineness/congruence
- Client-centered therapy
- Feelings and experiences of the therapist should match; should not maintain a professional reserve, but increase speak and act genuinely
274
Evidence of growth in client centered therapy
1) congruent self-concept
2) positive self-regard
3) internal locus-of-evaluation
4) willingness to experience
275
Systematic desensitization
- Wolpe
- Exposed to increasingly anxiety-provoking stimuli while using relaxation techniques
- Classical conditioning to relieve anxiety
276
Aversion therapy
Classical conditioning to increase anxiety
| -Generally used to treat addiction
277
Behavioral techniques
1) Systematic desensitization
2) Flooding or implosive therapy
3) Aversion therapy
4) Shaping
5) Modeling
6) Assertiveness training
7) Role playing
278
Types of maladaptive cognitions
1) Arbitrary inference
2) Overgeneralization
3) Magnifying/minimizing
4) Personalizing
5) Dichotomous thinking
279
Arbitrary inference
- Cognitive theory
| - Drawing a conclusion without solid evidence: "my boss thinks I'm stupid because he never asks me to play golf"
280
Overgeneralization (cognitive theory)
Mistaking isolated incidents for the norm
281
Magnifying/minimizing
Making too much or little of something: "it was luck that I did well on my exam"
282
Personalizing
Inappropriately taking responsibility: "our office's failed project was all my fault"
283
Dichotomous thinking
Black and white thinking: "If I don't score a 750 on the GRE, I'll have no future"
284
Cognitive triad
Negative views about the self, the world, and the future
285
Ellis' abnormal theory
A) Activating event occurs
B) Client applies certain beliefs about the event
C) Consequence of emotional disruption
Therapist leads client to dispute (D) applied irrational beliefs
Goal is effective (E) rational beliefs
286
Gestalt therapy
- Goal is to fully experience and perceive the present
- Perls, Wertheimer, Koffka
- Abnormal behavior comes from disturbance of awareness
- Dialogue with client, rather than leading
- Focus on here and now experience
287
Existential therapy
Frankl (logotherapy) and May
- Greatest struggle is that of being vs. nonbeing and meaningfulness vs. meaninglessness
- Will to meaning
- Response to meaninglessness in life is neurotic anxiety
288
Antimanics
Lithium
| -Inhibit monoamines such as norepinephrine and serotonin
289
Anxiolytics
- Anti-anxiety
- Barbiturates and benzodiazepines
- Reduce anxiety or induce sleep by increasing effectiveness of GABA
- Type of depressant
290
Third force
```
Humanistic theories (client-centered, gestalt, existential)
-Reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism
```
291
Eysenck on psychotherapy
Criticized its effectiveness after analyzing studies that indicated psychotherapy was no more successful than no treatment at all
-Other studies have contradicted this point
292
Stress-inoculation training
- Meichenbaum
| - Prepares people for foreseeable stressors
293
Neil Miller
- Approach-avoidance conflict
| - Proved experimentally that abnormal behavior can be learned
294
Pick's disease
Disease of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain characterized by changes in personality
295
Schizoaffective disorder
Schizophrenic symptoms accompanying a depressive episode
296
Delusional disorder
Delusions including the following types:
1) Erotomanic: that another person is in love with the individual
2) Grandiose: that one has special talent of status
3) Jealousy
4) Persecutory
4) Somatic: believing a part of the body is ugly or misshapen for ex.
297
Shared psychotic disorder
when two people have shared delusions
298
Factitious disorder
Creating physical complains through fabrication to assume the sick role (conscious)
299
Dyssmonias vs parasomnias
Dyssomnias: sleep abnormalities
Parasomnias: abnormal behaviors during sleep
300
Types of personality disorders
1) Paranoid
2) Schizoid
3) Schizotypal
4) Antisocial
5) Borderline
6) Histrionic
7) Narcissistic
8) Avoidant
9) Dependent
10) Obsessive-compulsive
301
Schizoid and Schizotypal personality disorder
Schizoid: detachment, small range of emotion
Schizotypal: eccentricity, distorted reality
302
Synonymous with anti-psychotics
Neuroleptics
303
Tardive dyskinesia
- Can result from long-time use of neuroleptics or psychotropics
- Characterized by involuntary, repetitive movements of the tongue, jaw, or extremities
304
Cretinism
Form of mental retardation caused by iodine deficiency
305
Disorders caused by heavy drinking
1) Korsakoff's syndrome: vitamin B deficiency; loss of memory and orientation; confabulations to fill in gaps
2) Wernicke's syndrome: thiamine deficiency; memory problems and eye dysfunctions
306
Tay-Sachs disease
- Recessive
- Genetic deficiency of hexosaminidase A
- May have symptoms resembling psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia or dementia
307
Reactive depression
Depression resulting from particular events
308
Depressive realism
Finding that depressed people tend to be more realistic about life than the nondepressed
309
Schizophrenogenic mother
- Fromm and Reichman
| - Refers to type of mother that "supposedly" causes children to become schizophrenic
310
H-Y antigen
- Six weeks after conception
- Presence causes testis to form, absence causes ovaries to form
3 months after conception: testosterone causes formation of rest of male reproductive system, while lack of causes formation of the female reproductive system
311
Hormones causing secondary sex characteristics
Boys: androgen
Girls: estrogen
312
Gelman
Showed Piaget underestimated cognitive ability of preschoolers
-Can deal with ideas such as quantity in small sets of objects
313
Piaget's moral development
4-7: imitates rule-following behavior; does not question acceptance of rules
7-11: understands rules and follows them
12+: applies abstract thinking to rules; can change rules if all parties agree
314
Age of Freud's psychosexual stages
```
Oral: birth- 1.5 years
Anal: 1.5-3 years
Phallic: 3-6 years
Latency: 6-puberty
Genital: Puberty on
```
315
Kohlberg's levels
1) should avoid punishment
2) should gain rewards
3) should gain approval
4) should follow law and authority
5) beyond black and white of laws; attentive to rights and social welfare
6) makes decisions based on abstract ethical principles
316
Who: parenting styles (authoritarian, permissive, authoritative)
Baumrind
317
Trajectory of sex-typed behavior
-Stereotypical gender behavior
| Low during prepubescence, highest in young adulthood, lower again during later life
318
Symbolic play
When children are 1-2 years old
| -Pretend roles, imagination, using objects to represent other things
319
Proprium or propriate function
- Allport
- Governs conscious motives
- Acts consistently based on traits it had developed through experience
320
Allport: ideographic or nomothetic?
ideographic
321
Traits vs states
Traits: relatively enduring characteristics
States: temporary feelings or characteristics
322
Taxonomies
Organized categorization systems
323
Dispositionists
Situationists
Interactionists
Dispositionists: internal determinants of behavior
Situationists: aka behaviorists, only circumstances determine behavior
Interactions: combination of stable internal factors and situations
324
Critics of trait theorists (dispositionists)
Epstein and Mischel
325
Consistency paradox
The possibility that a person may behave inconsistently
| Problem for labeling people as having one internal disposition
326
Cognitive prototype approach
Mischel and Cantor
| -Examines cognitive behavior (formation of and attention to prototypes) in social situations
327
Deaux
Found that women's successes at "male" tasks attributed to luck, and men's successes attributed to skill
-Women attribute their successes to luck more than men, indicating lower self-esteem
328
Horner
Believed females shunned masculine-type successes, not due to fear of failure, but because they feared success and its negative repercussions
329
Eagly
Found interaction between gender and social status, in terms of how easily an individual might be influenced
330
Maccoby and Jacklin
- Few sex differences that can be explained away by social learning
- Females have greater verbal ability, and males have greater visual/spatial ability
331
Who: type A personality
Friedman and Rosenman
332
Dahlstrom
Linked type A personality to heart disease and other health problems
333
Authoritarianism
- Viewing the world as made up of power relationships
- Either highly domineering or highly submissive (if they are in presence of more powerful figure)
- Conventional, aggressive, stereotyping, and anti-introspective
- Measured by F-scale (fascism scale)--> f-ratio
334
Self-monitoring
- Scrutinizing own behavior
- Acting appropriately rather than honestly
- Ability to mask true feelings
335
Costa and McCrae
Personality changes very little after age 30
336
Who: TAT
Murray
337
Self-serving attributional bias
Blaming situations for failures, and taking credit for successes
338
Sleeper effect
-Explains why persuasive communication from a source of low credibility may become more acceptable after the fact
339
Rodin and Langer
Nursing home residents who have plants to care for have better health and lower mortality rates
340
Who used Darwinian principles to promote eugenics?
Galton
341
Titchener
-Founder of structuralism
342
IQ
- Binet
| - Mental age/chronological age X 100
343
What is the mean IQ of Americans?
100
| SD= 15-16
344
Stanford-Binet intelligence scale
- Terman
- Used with children, and organized by age level
- Best known predictor for future academic achievement (out of all the IQ tests)
345
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)
Children 4-6
346
Ages for WISC-R
6-16
347
What correlates most positively with IQ?
IQ of biological parents and socioeconomic status of parents
348
Who: fluid and crystallized intelligence
Horn and Cattell
Fluid intelligence declines with old age, but crystallized does not
349
Spearmen
general factor in intelligence, g
350
Q-sort test
- Objective personality test
- Sorting cards into normal distribution (neutral in the middle, one end very characteristic, and not characteristic on the other end)
351
CPI
Usually used for more normal and less clinical groups than the MMPI
-Developed by Gough
352
Myers-Brigg Type Indicator
- Derived from Carl Jung's personality theory
1) Introverted/Extroverted
2) Sensing vs. intuition
3) Feeling vs thinking
4) Judgement vs perception
353
Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study
=-Rosenzweig
Cartoons where one person is frustrating another person
-Subject asked to describe how the frustrated person responds
-Projective test
354
Word association test
- Projective
- Word-- subject says the next word that comes to mind
- Originally used in conjunction with free-association techniques
355
Draw-A-Person Test
- Projective
| - Subject draws a person of each sex and tells a story about them
356
Beck Depression Inventory
Not used to diagnose depression, but is used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms
357
Example of criterion-keying approach
Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory
358
Anastasi
Researched intelligence in relation to performance
359
Bayley Scales of Infant Development
Measures sensory and motor development of infants in order to identify mentally retarded children
Poor predictor of later intelligence
360
Predictive value
Degree to which an independent variable can predict a dependent variable
361
Acquiescence
When people agree with opposing statements, problem for research
362
Synonymous with experimenter bias
Rosenthal effect
363
Reactance (in research)
attitude change in response to feeling that options are limited
Eg. subjects react negatively to being in an experiment by behaving unnaturally on purpose
364
Selective attrition
When the subjects that drop out of an experiment are different from those that remain (remaining sample is no longer random)
365
Difference between bar graph and histogram
In bar graph, vertical bars do not touch
366
Formula for t score
Transformation of a z-score, where mean is 50 and SD=10
T= 10 (z-score) + 50
367
Percentiles according to SD
```
-1 =15
0= 50
1= 84
2= 97
3=99
```
368
Curvilinear relationship
Curve line
| -Ex. arousal and performance
369
When to use Pearson r coefficient vs Spearman correlation coefficient
Use Spearman r correlation coefficient only when the data is in the from of ranks
370
One-way ANOVA vs two-way ANOVA
One-way: tests the means for one independent variable
| Two-way: tests effects of two independent variables at once
371
T-tests
compares means of two different groups
372
ANOVAs vs T-test
ANOVAs can analyze different among more than two groups (even if the groups have different sample sizes)
Both analyze continuous variables
373
Factorial analysis of variance
- When experiment involves more than one IV
- Allows separation of effects of different levels of different variables
- Can isolate main effects and interaction effects
374
Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
whether at least two groups co-vary
375
Split-half reliability
- Comparing individual's performance on two halves of the same test
- Reveals internal consistency of test
376
Item analysis
How a large group responded to each item on measure
- Weeds out dud or problematic questions that do not have discriminatory value
- Internal consistency (reliability)
377
Synonymous with concurrent validity
Cross validation
378
Multitrait-multimethod technique
- Campbell and Fiske
| - To determine validity of tests
379
Mental Retardation
IQ of 70 or bellow
Mild= 55-70
Moderate= 40-55
Severe= 25-40
380
What indicates learning disorders?
School achievement or standardized scores at least two standard deviations below the mean
381
16 Major Diagnostic Categories in DSM-5
1) Neurodevelopmental disorders
2) Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders
3) Bipolar and related disorders
4) Depressive disorders
5) Anxiety disorders
7) Trauma- and stressor-related disorders
8) Dissociative disorders
9) Somatic symptom and related disorders
10) Feeding and eating disorders
11) Sleep–wake disorders
12) Sexual dysfunctions
13) Gender dysphoria
14) Disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders
15) Substance-related and addictive disorders
16) Neurocognitive disorders
17) Paraphilic disorders (sexual deviation)
18) Personality disorders
382
Dysthymic disorder (persistent depressive disorder)
Symptoms of MDD for more than two years, but there is never an actual depressive episode
383
Major depressive disorder
- Symptoms present nearly every day for at least two weeks
| - Depressed mood, loss of interest, change in weight or sleep, low energy, feelings of worthlessness, thoughts of death
384
Holophrastic vs telegraphic speech
Holophrastic: one word that conveys meaning of entire sentence
Telegraphic: barebones and only conveys necessity
"me want cookie" "me ball"
Same idea, 1 word vs. multiple words
385
Who: overjustification
Bem
386
What does a cross-sectional study control for, compared to longitudinal study?
Cohort effect
387
What likely causes hermaphrodite individual?
Female fetus being exposed to higher than normal level of testosterone
388
What do osmoreceptors deal with?
Thirst
389
Proprioception
Also known as kinesthetic sense
| -Information from *receptors in joints and muscles* that tells us position of our body
390
Cutaneous/Tactual receptors
1) Free nerve endings: pain and temperature changes
2) Meissner's corpuscles: receptors that detect touch/contact
3) Pacinian corpuscles: respond to displacement of skin
391
What are vestibular sacs for?
Sensitive to tilt and provide sense of balance
392
Outer ear
Auditory canal and pinna
393
Purkinje shift
Perceived color brightness changes with the level of illumination in the room
At lower levels of illumination, the extremes of color spectrum (especially red) are seen as less bright
394
Minimum principle
Tendency to see what is easiest or logical
395
What causes dark adaptation?
Regeneration of retinal pigment (rhodopsin)
Do not reach max sensitivity to dark until 30 minutes
396
Who: opponent-process theory
Hering
397
Lateral inhibition
Allows the eye to see contrast and prevents repetitive information from being sent to the brain (once one receptor cell is stimulated, the others nearby are inhibited)
398
Passage through cells after visual receptor cells
Horizontal cells --> Bipolar cells --> Amacrine cells --> ganglion cells
399
Accommodation (vision)
- Occurs though the lens
| - Bending to focus image of the outside world onto the retina
400
What is the lens controlled by?
Ciliary muscles
401
What is the pupil controlled by?
Iris
402
Draw-A-Man Test
- Goodenough
- For children
- Notable for cross-cultural application and simple directions (make a picture of a man, best picture)
- Scored based on detail and accuracy (not talent)
- Example of IQ testing NOT projective testing
403
What is Terman famous for (other than Stanford-Binet intelligence scale)?
- Studies with gifted children
| - Finding that children with higher IQ are better adjusted
404
Zajonc
- Familiarity determinant of attraction
- Social facilitation
- Studied relationship between birth order and intelligence
* Firstborns slightly more intelligent than second-borns, etc.
* More children in a family, less intelligent they are likely to be
* Greater spaces between children leading to higher intelligence
405
Objective personality tests
1) MMPI: 550 true/false/not sure questions
2) CPI
3) Myers-Brigg Type Indicator (MBTI): 93 questions, which each have 2 answers
4) Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale
406
Special feature of TAT
- Used to measure need for achievement
| - Terms that go along with interpreting the test: needs, press, and personology
407
Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank
Similar to word association
- Subjects finish incomplete sentences
- Projective test
408
Cohort-sequential design
-Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches
409
Variables: frequency polygon vs histogram
Frequency polygon: continuous variables
Histograte: useful for discrete variables that have clear boundaries and for interval variables in which there is some order
410
Domain-referenced test
- Measures less-defined properties (like intelligence) and needs to be checked for reliability and validity
- Not norm
- Vs criterion-referenced test: mastery in a particular area or subject
411
Primary prevention
Attempts to prevent documented psychosocial problems through direct contact with an at-risk (but unaffected) group
Before problems arise, rather than as a result of the problems
412
Neo-Freudians
Horney and Sullivan
413
Antabuse
Drug that changes metabolism of alcohol, resulting in severe nausea and vomiting
Used to countercondition alcoholics
414
Examples of antipsychotics
Thorazine (chlorpromazine)
| Haldol (Haloperidol)
415
Examples of tricyclic antidepressants
Elavil (amitriptyline)
416
Examples of MAOIs
Nardil (phenelzine)
417
Examples of SSRIs
Prozac (fluoxetin)
Paxil (paroxetin)
Zoloft (sertraline)
418
Type A personality
1) Drive
2) Competitiveness
3) Aggressiveness
4) Hostility
Most commonly found in middle-upper class men
419
Nerve deafness
From damaged hair cells on the cochlea
420
Difference threshold for hearing
Change must be 5%
