Mini 1 - week 1+2 Flashcards
What is cystic fibrosis?
A defect in the CFTR protein (12 transmembrane domains) that pumps chloride in and out of the cell that causes chloride to not be pumped out and so water to build up.
What is the path of the vertebral artery? What happens when blood flow is restricted (e.g. atherosclerosis).
It is a branch of the subclavian artery, it travels through the C6-C1 transverse foramina, goes medially along the C1 posterior branch and then passes superiorly through the foramen magnum to the brain. In the event of reduced blood flow, prolonged turning of the head can reduce blood flow to the brain.
What is OLDCARTSP?
Questions you ask a patient - onset, location, duration, character, associated/alleviating/aggravating factors/symptoms, radiation, timing, severity, and prior episodes.
How do membranes do cell-cell communication?
With the carbs attached to their lipids and proteins (glycolipids, glycoproteins).
What is special about aromatic amino acids?
They’re somewhat hydrophobic, often found in active sites, participate in stacking interactions with substrates.
Describe primary transcripts.
A leader sequence of 1kb or longer (this is recognized by binding proteins that participate in assembly of it into a ribonucleoprotein), long tail sequences that are common in eukaryotes, a capped mRNA, tRNA and rRNA transcripts that are cut into pieces to form individual RNAs.
What is the action of the rhomboid major + minor?
Retract and inferiorly rotate the scapula. Fix scapulae to thoracic wall.
What is the role of myosin in a cell?
It can move along F-actin or slide one actin fiber past another with the use of ATP. Actin/myosin fibers in not muscle are called stress fibers. Motility by crawling ‘lamellipodium’. - microtubules also involved
What does the superficial layer of the extrinsic back muscles do?
It controls the upper limb. It also connects the axial skeleton with the superior appendicular skeleton.
What is whiplash?
Severe hyperextension (like the hangman’s) which stretches/tears the anterior longitudinal ligament. There may also be a rebound hyperflexion injury.
How do tetracyclines work?
They bind the 30S subunit and block tRNA binding so no protein is synthesized.
What is maltose?
alpha1->4 glucose+glucose.
What are the effects of uncompetitive inhibitors? What are some examples?
They bind the E-S complex at not an active site, it lowers Km and Vmax. Lithium for inositol monophosphate.
What is the origin and insertion of the infraspinatus?
O: Infraspinous fossa I: greater tubercle
What is the blood supply of the latissimus dorsi?
The thoracodorsal artery.
What is an oil?
A hydrophobic liquid. It can be a hydrocarbon, triglyceride, or fatty acid.
How are tRNAs processed?
They are spliced (though differently than mRNA), RNAse P trims the 5’ end until it is left with one phosphate. tRNAse Z trims the 3’ end and then nucleotidyl transferase adds a (nonencoded) CCA.
What is the path of the spinal accessory nerve / CN XI?
It goes from the cranium down the neck and back deep to the trapezius. It is relatively superficial and can be easily injured with a blunt or penetrating injury.
What are the stages of change in the transtheoretical model?
Pre-contemplation (no intention of changing behaviour), contemplation (aware there’s a problem - no commitment to action), preparation (intent of taking action), action, maintenance, relapse.
What is a lipid raft and what does it have to do with signalling?
Aggregations of sphingomyelin, glycolipids, and cholesterol that make sections of the membrane less fluid. Signal transduction in these is more rapid. They also limit signalling by physically sequestering signalling components - block nonspecific interactions and suppress intrinsic activity of signalling proteins. They may also contain incomplete signalling pathways that are activated when a require molecule is recruited into the cell. Integrins are often activated in lipid rafts.
Where is the oxygen removed from ribose to ake deoxyribose?
At the 2’ carbon.
What is a back strain?
Stretching and/or microscopic tearing of muscle fibers caused by overly strong contraction. Often the erector spinae are involved and spasms may be in response to inflammation. This is a common sports injury.
Describe receptor-ligand kinetics.
Similar to enzyme kinetics but with a Bmax and a KD (binding dissociation constant) where 1/KD is the equilibrium constant. RL = Ro [L]/ [L]+KD
What is the Henderson-Hasselbach equation?
pH=pKa + log[A-}/{HA]
What does the intrinsic layer of back muscles do?
It acts on the axial skeleton only. It acts on the vertebral column to control movements and maintain posture.
What are the BMI ranges?
<18.5 (underweight), 18.5-25 (normal), 25-30 (overweight), >30 (obese).
What is a dermatome?
A unilateral area of skin innervated by the GSA fibers of a single spinal nerve.
What kind of targeting sequence and proteins are needed for import into nucleus vs export from the nucleus?
A positively charged one and a hydrophobic one. NLS/NES. these can be on the cargo itself or on an associated protein. Importins are the receptors for NLS and Exportins for NES. A small GTPase called RAN regulates the binding and release of cargo.
What is a wax?
A long chain, hydrophobic branched hydrocarbon. It can be solid, semisolid, or liquid.
What do kinetochore proteins do?
Link the mitotic spindle to centromeres.
What is the insertion of the latissimus dorsi?
The intertubercular sulcus of the humerus.
What are hydrolases?
Use H2O addition to break bonds.
What are the spinal cord meninges and spaces?
The epidural space is filled with fat and is between the dura mater and vertebral column. The subdural space is only a potential (pathological) space and is between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater. The subarachnoid space is filled with CSF and is between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.
Describe the unusual structure of collagen.
A high glycine and proline %. A triple helix quaternary structure.
What provides sensory innervation to the back?
The cutaneous branches of the posterior rami.
What is the insertion od the deltoid?
The deltoid tuberosity of the humerus.
What is ankylosing spondylitis?
It is an inflammatory form of spinal arthritis where >1 vertebral and/or sacroiliac joints fuse. It causes a hunched forward appearance and is more common in males than females.
What can alternatively spliced H2A do and what are some examples?
It can replace H2B. H2A.Z is associated with promoter/nucleosome free regions. H2A.X is associated with regions undergoing DNA repair and T cell differentiation. Macro H2A is associated with Barr bodies.
What are the levels of health prevention?
Primordial, primary, secondary (disease), tertiary (disease+illness), quaternary (illness).
Describe class II nuclear hormone receptors.
They exist prebound to DNA. Ligand binding causes the release of co-repressors and the recruitment of co-activator proteins. They are generally heterodimers.
How do aminoglycosides work?
They bind the 30S subunit and impair proofreading so there are faulty proteins.
What is a detergent?
A natural or synthetic amphipathic compound that acts as a surfactant (forms micelles in water) as a result of its head being bigger than its hydrophobic tail.
Name the three bodily planes that depend on standard anatomical position.
Transverse/axial/transaxial - divides body into superior/cephalic/cranial and inferior/caudal. Coronal - divides body into anterior/ventral and posterior/dorsal. Sagittal - divides body into right and left.
What are cytoplasmic inclusions?
Transitory, nonmotile, not membrane bound aggregations in the cytosol. They can be common fat droplets, lipofuscin granules, and glycogen rosettes.
What are the effects of suicide inhibitors? What are some examples?
They bind outside the active site and reduce Vmax. They do this permanently because it is covalent. Aspirin for COX (makes prostaglandins), Nerve gases for AchE, PPIs (decrease acid secretion in the stomach), Penicillin type antibiotics for enzymes that make cell walls. They resemble serine proteases and are very slow cleavable substrates.
What does glycolysis make?
Pyruvate from glucose.
What are the IOM’s Aims for Improvement?
Safe, Timely, Efficient, Effective, Equitable, Patient-centered.
How is DNA packaged?
146bps wrap 1.67 times around a nucleosome octamer, which tightens by H4 deacetylation into a 30nm Toroid.
What happens when light goes into your eye?
Cis-retinal absorbs light and isomerizes to trans-retinal. This causes a conformational change in rhodopsin. Gt (transducin) is activated, the alpha subunit bound to GTP activates phosphodiesterase. PDE converts cGMP to GMP. This causes the closure of CNG channels (that cGMP usually keeps open) which results in membrane polarization.
What are the purines and what are the pyrimidines and which are two rings?
Purines are two rings and they are A and G. Pyrimidines are C, T, and U.
What is the general structure of a glycerol phospholipid?
2 fatty acids plus a head (can be attached to a phosphate). The middle fatty acid is usually unsaturated. Common heads are ethanolamiine, choline, serine, inositol.
What’s an oxyanion hole for?
It has a backbone/sidechains that interacts with the carbonyl of the peptide bond and helps stabilize the tetrahedral intermediate.
What are the types of repetitive DNA? And how much of the genome is repetitive DNA?
Transposons (generally defunct retroviruses) - have inverted repeats, LINEs and SINEs (derived from retroviral integration or transposable elements), and other repetitive DNA found in telomeres, centromeres, micro and mini satellites. About 52% of the genome.
What is a lipid?
A natural, nonpolar (or amphipathic) molecule that stores energy, makes up membranes, vitamins, and does signalling. Includes waxes, oils, fat, detergents.
What is the facet/zygophasial joint?
Joint between two one vertebra’s superior articular facet (on articular process) and another’s inferior one.
What is the action of teres minor?
Lateral rotation
What are ribosomes made of?
40S SSU (1rRNA + 33 proteins), and 60S SSU (3rRNA + 40 proteins).
Describe the costal facets of the thoracic vertebrae.
The superior and inferior ones articulate with the head of the rib, and the transverse ones (on the edge of the transverse processes) articulate with the costal tubercle.
Where is glycogen stored? Where does gluconeogenesis take place?
Liver and muscle. Liver and a little bit kidney.
When does mRNA bind an NES?
Only when it’s finally processed.
What is a crush/compression fracture?
A fraction of the body due to a sudden forceful flexion. It can be accompanied with the dislocation/fracture of the articular facets between two vertebrae and/or the rupture of interspinous ligaments.
How are microtubules and actin involved in mitosis?
Actin/myosin make up the contractile ring. The + ends of microtubules plug into centrosome kinetochores (mitotic spindle).
What is the action of the infraspinatus?
Lateral rotation of the arm and to stabilize the glenohumeral joint.
What is the origin and insertion of the supraspinatus?
O: supraspinous fossa I: greater tubercle
Describe pre-initiation of translation.
In the nucleus, elongation factors bind pre-mRNA shortly after its binding site is synthesized, and additional elongation factors and the small subunit of the ribosome are recruited. The met-tRNA binds, and this all exits once the mRNA is fully matured.
What is the innervation of the supraspinatus?
the suprascapular nerve (C5).
What does colchicine treat and how?
Gout is uric acid crystals depositing in joints and swelling, attracting leukocytes, and swelling more. Colchicine prevents white blood cells from migrating there by counteracting microtubule action in crawling.
List the extrinsic superficial back muscles and their innervations.
Trapezius (descending, middle, ascending head) - CN XI. Latissimus dorsi - thoracodorsal nerve (C6-8). Levator scapulae, rhomboid major, rhomboid minor - dorsal scapular nerve (C5). Rhomboids separate branch than levator.
How do enhancers and repressors work?
Both can rearrange the nucleosome to expose or cover the promoter region. Enhancers usually bind the DNA and then additional proteins which recruit TFs and RNA polymerase. Repressors can themselves block the DNA binding site.
How many vertebral bodies are there?
- 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral (fused), and 4 coccygeal (fused after age 30).
What and where is the cauda equina?
The bottom of the spinal cord where nerves begin to taper out and travel to the intervertebral canal exit. It is surrounded by a dural sac.
What is the action of the erector spinae group?
They extend the vertebral column, give some rotation tot he vertebral column, and act on the vertebral column to control movements and maintain posture.
What is Hutchinson-Gilford progeria caused by?
Lamin A.
What are the secondary spinal curves?
The newborn spine is kyphotic. Lordosis forms in the cervical and lumbar vertebrae with the child starts holding her head up and standing respectively.
What is the insertion of teres major?
The medial lip of the intertubercular sulcus.
Describe intermediate filaments.
Toughest one, rope structure, can survive cell death. They’re less dynamic.
What’s a way to treat lumbar stenosis?
Decompressive laminectomy.
What are oxidoreductases?
They facilitate redox chemistry, often need FAD or NAD as a cofactor. If they need NAD they are dehydrogenases.
Describe the blood flow to the scapular/upper arm region.
The subclavian artery branches into the dorsal scapular, axillary, and thyrocervical trunk (transverse cervical and suprascapular artery). The axillary continues down and branches into the subscapular and circumflex arteries, and the subscapular branches into the thoracodorsal. The thoracodorsal, circumflex, and subscapular all connect to the dorsal scapular from the other direction. Also there are posterior intercostal arteries coming into the dorsal scapular.
What is a hangman’s fracture?
Abrupt hyperextension of the neck breaks the pedicles of C2 posterior to the superior articular facets.
What is a fat?
A hydrophobic solid. Usually a triglyceride.
What is the difference between cilia and flagella?
Flagella are (~60um), cilia (2-5um). You can have multiple cilia but only one flagellum. Cilia are in the respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, and move around the cerebrospinal fluid in the brain.
What is the insertion of the trapezius?
The acromion and spine of the scapula.
What’s the size of a nucleus?
Aout 8 um.
Where are many actin-binding proteins located?
Right under the plasma membrane (and so, so is most F-actin).
If a particular disc is herniated, which nerve will be affected?
The nerve going through that foramen except in the case of lumbar where it is the one above that foramen.
What happens in the case of a posterolateral disc herniation?
It may spare the nerve at the level of injury but affect the one inferior.
Describe the arterial blood supply of the spinal cord.
- 1 anterior spinal artery that branches from the vertebral artery - 2 posterior spinal arteries that arise directly or indirectly from vertebral arteries These are reinforced by radicular arteries, branches of segmental arteries, ascending cervical arteries, deep cervical arteries, posterior intercostal arteries, lumbar arteries, and sacral arteries.
Does the nucleolus have a membrane?
No.
How can a GPCR signal be terminated?
Ligand unbinding. Self-GTP hydrolysis. Endocytosis (sequestered and eventually returned or degraded in the lysosome). When the ligand dissociates, GRK phosphorylates the protein and arrestin binds and block further signalling.
What is special about OH-containing amino acids?
They are structural, engage in H-bonding, often found in active sites. The OH can be phosphorylated or glycosylated.
What is the rotator cuff made of?
The supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis.
How are axons organized?
Into fascicles, which make up peripheral nerves. In the CNS, groups of axons are called tracts.
Describe the unusual quaternary structure of Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase.
It has a dimer (16,000Da monomer). Each of its subunits have 8 antiparallel beta sheets in a barrel.
What is the action of the deltoid?
Abducts the arm >15 degrees.
What are the four most abundant phospholipids?
Phosphotidylcholine, sphilgomyelin (also a choline head but a sphingosine backbone not glyerol), phosphotidylserine (the only negatively charged phospholipid), and phosphotidylethanolamine.
Which joint is for nodding your head and which is for shaking?
Atlanto-occipital and atlanto-axial.
How does glucagon affect glycogen?
Glucagon binds a G protein receptor, and it releases GDP and binds GTP, and then the alpha subunit bound to GTP comes off. This activates adenylate cyclase which makes cAMP. cAMP binds PKA which is activated and phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase kinase which phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylates which degrades glycogen to G1P.
What is the innervation of the deltoid?
The axillary nerve (C5-6).
What forces are present in protein tertiary structure?
H-bonds, ionic bonds, van der waals forces, disulfide bridges (the only covalent interaction - will not be hurt by denaturing agents but can be broken by reducing agents like glutathione) or oxidizing agents.
What is the innervation of the serratus anterior?
The long thoracic nerve (C5-7).
What are the kinds of membrane proteins?
Integral (which a detergent is needed to remove) and peripheral (which can be removed by a high salt rinse).
What is the insertion of the levator scapulae?
The medial border of the scapula - superior to the root of the scapular spine.
What are ligases?
They catalyze formation of various bonds.
What are the mechanisms catalysts use?
Substrate (or group) specificity, bind/stabilize transition state, provide covalent chemistry by orienting substrate and enzyme, providing acid/base chemistry.
How do chloramphenicol, macrolides, and lincosamides work?
They bind the 50S subunit to prevent peptide bond formation so there is no protein synthesis.
What muscles make up the suboccipital triangle? What margins do they make up?
Rectus capitis posterior major - superomedial. Obliquus capitis inferior - inferolateral. Obliquus capitis superior - superolateral. The greater occipital nerve (C2) is inside the triangle.
What is the structure of a telomere?
TTAGGG with shelterin protecting the ends. The last 300bps form a D-loop The loss of telomeres creates sticky ends tahat are hotspots for DNA repair and recombination.
What are the mechanisms of bringing things into the cell?
Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis (usually by clathrin-coated pits).
What are the sources and fates of Acetyl CoA?
Sources: pyruvate, fatty acids (beta-ox), ketone bodies Fates: TCA, fatty acid synthesis, ketone body production
What is the blood supply of rhomboid major and minor?
The dorsal scapular artery.
What is special about acidic amino acids?
They are often sites for protein modifications.
Describe the venous drainage of the spinal cord.
3 anterior and 3 posterior spinal veins that communicate with each other and drain into the anterior and posterior medullary veins. They join the internal vertebral/epidural plexus (valveless) and communicate with the dural sinuses and then the vertebral veins. They also communicate with the external vertebral plexii on the external aspect of the vertebrae.
What muscles does the suboccipital nerve (C1) innervate?
rectus capitis posterior major/minor and obliquus capitis superior/inferior.
What are the effects of competitive inhibitors? What are some examples?
Binds the active site and increases Km. Statins (e.g. pravastatin competes with HMG-CoA for HMG-CoA reductase). Methanol for alcohol dehydrogenase (converts to formic acid and formaldehyde).
What is the blood supply of the levator scapulae?
The dorsal scapular artery.
Where do the R groups project in beta sheets? What are examples of beta sheet containing proteins?
They alternate up and down. Often to avoid the ‘edge effect’ they form barrels. Porin and IgG.
List the intrinsic back muscles.
The paraspinous muscles and the erector spinae group.
What and where is the lumbar cistern?
An enlargement of subarachnoid space between the conus medullaris and the end of the dural sac around S2. Around L4 through this is where you do spinal anaesthesia or a lumbar puncture.
What is the Michaelis-menten equation?
Vo=Vmax
What do the different RNA polymerases transcribe?
RNA Pol I: rRNA (in the nucleolus) RNA Pol II: mRNA RNA Pol 3: tRNA
What is Karteneger syndrome?
Primary cilia dyskinesia. An autosomal recessive disease, lack of axonemal dynein in motile cilia. causes reduced/absent mucus clearance from the lungs and male infertility.
Describe starch, glycogen, and cellulose.
glucose polysaccharides. Starch is amylose (linear alpha1->4) and amylopectin (also has alpha1->6 branches). Glycogen is the same as amylopectin but has more branches. Cellulose is beta1->4 and we cannot break this down.
What does the intermediate layer of the extrinsic back muscles do?
It controls only the axial skeleton. It helps with respiratory and proprioceptive movements (and the serratus posterior muscles)?
What are the fates of pyruvate?
Acetyl CoA, oxaloacetate, alanine (for nitrogen transport). Also lactate in anaerobic fermentation and ethanol in some microorganisms.
Describe the venous drainage to the vertebal column.
The spinal veins form internal and external venous plexii. Both the external and internal plexii have anterior and posterior components, and the internal plexii is valveless (a potential path for metastasis). There are also basivertebral veins within the vertebral bodies. They all end up draining into the vertebral veins.
Where do the R groups project in alpha helices? What are examples of alpha-helix containing proteins?
They project out. Hemoglobin and rhodopsin (7 TM alpha helices, one kinked with a proline)
What are the ACGME (Accreditation Council on Graduate Medical Education)’s general competencies?
Systems-based practice, professionalism, interpersomal & communication skills, patient care, practice-based learning and improvement, medical knowledge.
Describe somatic sensory nerve signaling.
A sensory/GSA type axon travels in the spinal nerve and reaches the dorsal root. Then it becomes a tract in the spinal cord and reaches the brain.
What are transferases?
They move a functional group from one molecule to another.
How fast does DNA replication occur?
2000nt/sec.
Describe class I nuclear hormone receptors.
They exist in the cytoosol bound to HSP90. When the ligand binds, the alpha helix flips, releases HSP90, the receptor dimeries into a homodimer and translocates to the nucleus.
Briefly go over fatty acid synthesis in the liver. Where does it get its ATP?
AcCoA -> FAs which combine with glycerol phosphate to make triglycerides which are then packaged into VLDLs. It gets its ATP from the pentose phosphate pathway / hexose monophosphate shunt.
Where is spina bifida occulta seen?
In L5 and/or S1.
What are the differences between arteries and veins?
Arteries go from the heart to capillary beds, and veins go the other way. Arteries carry oxygen rich blood, veins carry deoxygenated blood. Arteries are thick walled and have a lumen and veins are thin walled and lumenless.
What are glycoproteins involved in?
Regulation of folding/structure.
What are groups of neuronal cell bodies called?
In the CNS, nuclei. In the PNS, gangia.
What does insulin do?
It upregulates glucose use by all tissues, upregulates GLUT4 release in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, activates LPL in adipose tissue, promotes anabolism.
How do you recognize the atlas?
It has no body and a transverse ligament.
How do cells attach to their surroundings?
With integrins. Integrins are made up of alpha and beta subunits - one cell can have multiple integrins on its surface. Once an integrin is activated, it sends signals about the status of the ECM which can control tissue specific gene expression or release it if its in the wrong place - which can trigger apptosis. Integrin activation often occurs in lipid rafts.
What is the blood supply of the trapezius?
The transverse cervical artery.
What is the difference between trimeric G proteins and small G proteins?
Small ones are monomeric and do not have intrinsic hydrolysis activity. They need a GTPase accelerating protein (GAP) specific for it to hydrolyze GTP.
What is coccydynia?
Coccyx pain from injury, childbirth, straining.
How does taxol work?
It is an anti microtubule drug, and because it’s needed to form the mitotic spindle the cell arrests and hopefully apoptoses.
What is the action of the trapezius?
Descending head - elevation of the scapula. Ascending head - depression of the scapula. D+A=superior rotation of the scapula. Middle head - retraction of scapula.
What is the origin and insertion of the subscapularis?
O: subscapular fossa I: lesser tubercle
What can alternatively spliced H3 do and what are some examples?
It can alter packing. H3.3 is found in euchromatin and H3 CENPA anchors the nucleosome to the centromere.
What is a back sprain?
Only ligamentous tissue is involved; no dislocation or fracture. It comes from strong contractions related to movement of the vertebral column.
Describe the somatic motor pathway.
It is a 2 neuron system. First, a UMN in the primary motor cortex sends a signal down a GSE axon axon to a LMN in the ventral horn. Then the LMN sends a signal down the ventral root to a peripheral spinal nerve, which eventually innervates a muscle.
What is the difference between a dermatome and cutaneous nerve areas?
The cutaneous nerve supplies an area of sin related to a peripheral nerve and can contain fibers from several individual spinal nerves. Its areas overlap with dermatomes and are generally broader and wider than a single dermatome.
Decribe the structure of cilia and flagella.
Microtubules in a 9+2 array of tubulin dimers, nucleated by a basal body. They contain axonemal dynein.
What is the general structure of a phospholipid? Where are the major classes synthesized?
Glycerol backbone, phosphate head, two fatty acid tails, one saturated and one unsaturated. The major classes are synthesized in the SER.
What are the effects of noncompetitive inhibitors? What are some examples?
They bind outside the active site and reduce Vmax. G6P for hexokinase. NNRTIs for reverse transcriptase.
What and where is the filum terminale?
It continues down from the conus medullaris and tethers the spinal cord to the coccyx.
What are lymphatics?
They drain surplus tissue fluid/leaked plasma proteins/remove debris. They regulate the interstitial fluid. They follow vein pathways.
What is the structure of NAD/FAD?
a base + a ribose/ribitol + a phosphate in a dinucleotide structure. The nicotinamide/flavine bases are made from niacin (B3) and riboflavin (B2). NAD is usually soluble and has more redox potential than FAD, which is typically bound as a substrate?
What is a denticulate ligament?
It anchors the spinal cord to the dura mater at the midpoint between two spinal nerves.
When is a buffer strongest/weakest?
strongest: pH=pKa weakest: pH=pI
What is the action of the supraspinatus?
It abducts the arm 0-15 degrees. It also stabilizes the glenohumeral joint.
What is special about branched chain amino acids?
Amino group is sent to pyruvate to make alanine, and the carbons are sent to TCA.
What is the action of the subscapularis?
Medial rotation of the arm.
How many dermatomes are there?
- 7 cervical (C1 doesn’t have one, it’s just motor), 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygeal.
What is the RNA template for telomerase and what is the telomere sequence?
CCCUAA TTAGGG
What is the innervation of the subscapularis?
The upper and lower subscapular nerve (C5-6).
Describe the average transmembrane protein domain.
20 amino acids in an alpha helix.
Describe actin fibers.
From the greek “ray”, or “beam”. Present in all cells, usually 50% as free subunits (G-actin) and 50% as filaments (F-actin). F-actin is a 2 stranded helix with a + and - end. It’s added onto the + end bound to ATP and added onto the - end bound to ADP.
What is important about chondroitin-sulfate repeats?
They provide a lot of negative charge to sugar chains that keeps them hydrated and apart and provides connective tissue elasticity.
What is the innervation of teres major?
The lower subscapular nerve (C6).
What does TCA make?
CO2 from Acetyl CoA (which is made from pyruvate by PDH).
When is initiation of transcription complete?
When RNA is over ten bases long or (if it is destined to become mRNA) the RNA is capped.
