Minerals Flashcards
1
Q
Where do all minerals come from?
A
The Earth’s crust
2
Q
What are minerals?
A
Inorganic elements that originate in the Earth, that cannot be made by living organisms.
3
Q
Can minerals be made by humans and other living organisms?
A
No
4
Q
For humans to absorb and use minerals they must first be bound to _________ ________ (containing carbon).
A
Organic compounds
5
Q
Organic = a chemical structure containing _________.
A
Carbon
6
Q
Inorganic = a chemical structure without _________.
A
Carbon
7
Q
Where might inorganic materials be present?
A
In the water we drink
8
Q
Inorganic materials are difficult to breakdown. We have to excrete them and our bodies treat them as toxins. True or false?
A
True
9
Q
The electrons in inorganic materials spin counter clockwise (in the opposite direction) to those in the cells in our bodies, so they’re out of sync with us. This is why they’re not good for us. True or false?
A
True
10
Q
Where do plants obtain minerals?
A
From the soil.
11
Q
Where do animals obtain minerals?
A
From the soil and plants they eat.
12
Q
The mineral levels in plants are only as good as the soil they’re grown in. True or false?
A
True
13
Q
What amount of our body weight is made up of minerals?
A
4 - 5%
14
Q
Where in the body are minerals found?
A
In all body tissues
15
Q
Which 2 minerals make up the majority of the mineral content of our bodies (around 75%)?
A
Calcium and phosphorus
16
Q
What are macro minerals?
A
Minerals that we need a lot of.
17
Q
What are micro minerals?
A
Minerals that we only need in small amounts.
18
Q
List 5 macro minerals.
A
- Calcium (Ca)
- Sodium (Na)
- Phosphorus (P)
- Magnesium (Mg)
- Potassium (K)
- Chloride (Cl)
- Sulphur (S)
19
Q
List 5 trace minerals.
A
- Iron (Fe)
- Zinc (Zn)
- Iodine (I)
- Selenium (Se)
- Manganese (Mn)
- Molybdenum (Mo)
- Copper (Cu)
- Chromium (Cr)
- Boron (B)
- Fluoride (F)
- Silicon (Si)
20
Q
What are trace minerals?
A
Minerals that we need in very small amounts.
21
Q
What dosage of Zinc do we need each day to function?
A
15 mg
22
Q
What dosage of chromium do we need each day to function?
A
25 - 35 mcg
23
Q
Which mineral do we need to balance blood sugar and maintain insulin sensitivity?
A
Chromium
24
Q
How do macro minerals exist in the body (in what form)?
A
In an ionic state (as cations or anions)
25
What are cations (in relation to minerals)?
Positively charged mineral ions
26
What are anions (in relation to minerals)?
Negatively charged mineral ions
27
Name 4 macro minerals that exist in the body as cations (positively charged ions).
1. Sodium (Na+)
2. Calcium (Ca2+)
3. Potassium (K+)
4. Magnesium (Mg2+)
28
Name 3 macro minerals that exist in the body as anions (negatively charged ions).
1. Chlorine (as chloride) (Cl-)
2. Sulphur (as sulphate) (S-)
3. Phosphorus (as phosphate) (P-)
29
Ionic minerals never exist in the body on their own, they like to form bonds with others (cations bond with anions). True or false?
True
30
Give 3 examples of classic cation-anion bonded minerals in the body.
1. Potassium Chloride
2. Magnesium Sulphate
3. Calcium Phosphate
31
What are phosphoproteins?
Amino acids that are bonded to phosphates/phosphorus.
32
Give an example of a phosphoprotein.
Casein
33
What are phospholipids?
Lipids / fats that are bonded to phosphates/phosphorus.
34
Give an example of a phospholipid.
Cell membranes
35
What are metalloenzymes?
Enzymes that contain a metal ion at their core.
36
Alcohol dehydrogenase is an example of a metalloenzyme that contains _____ at its core.
Zinc
37
Which mineral is required to make the enzyme that breaks down alcohol and aldehydes in the body?
Zinc
38
What is a metalloprotein?
A mineral bonded to a protein.
39
Give an example of a metalloprotein molecule.
Haemoglobin - Iron bound to a protein
40
Most minerals are absorbed in their ionic state, in the ______ __________.
Small intestine
41
Most minerals are absorbed in their ionic state, in the small intestine. Name a mineral that is the exception to this rule.
Iron
42
Minerals must be released from the organic compounds they're bound to (i.e, food) in order to be used in the body. This process relies on _______ ______.
Stomach acid (digestive secretions)
43
What happens to unabsorbed minerals?
They're excreted in the faeces
44
List 3 key functions of minerals.
1. Nerve & muscle function
2. Thyroid health
3. Supporting immune health
4. Building tissues (bone, teeth etc)
5. Components of enzymes
6. Production of ATP
45
Define 'bioavailability'.
The amount of a substance that we're able to utilise to active effect.
46
Several factors can affect mineral bioavailability. List 3 of them.
1. Existing mineral status in the body
2. Substances present in food (can enhance or inhibit availability)
3. Other minerals present in food (competing with each other)
47
List 3 things that can lead to mineral depletion in the body.
1. Chronic stress
2. Poor dietary choices / food processing
3. Excessive exercise
4. Excess alcohol, sugar, caffeine
48
Give an example of a mineral needed in higher quantities during pregnancy and why.
Calcium. To build the skeleton of the baby.
49
Give an example of a substance that can enhance the bioavailability of iron.
Vitamin C
50
Give an example of something that can inhibit the bioavailability of iron, zinc and/or calcium
Phytates
51
Give some examples of foods that contain phytates.
Beans, grains, lentils, nuts and seeds
52
What are phytates?
Storage forms of phosphorus
53
Many minerals compete with other minerals for absorption, as they use the same pathways to get into the cell. Give 2 examples of competing minerals.
1. Iron reduces Zinc absorption
| 2. Zinc reduces copper absorption
54
What is a ligand?
A molecule that binds to another molecule.
55
Minerals in supplements are rarely found as pure minerals - they're found to carrier molecules called ______. Each carrier has unique characteristics that facilitate absorption.
Ligands
56
List 3 challenges when it comes to mineral supplementation.
1. Tolerability
2. Bioavailability
3. Chemical reactivity
57
List 3 common organic mineral carriers (ligands).
Citrate, glycinate, ascorbate, gluconate
58
List 3 common inorganic mineral carriers (ligands).
Oxide, carbonate, sulphide, chloride
59
In the mineral carrier gluconate, what molecule/substance is used to bind to the mineral (to increase bioavailability and tolerability)?
Glucose
60
In the mineral carrier glycinate, what is used to bind to the mineral (to increase bioavailability and tolerability)?
The amino acid glycine
61
________ is the most abundant mineral in the body, accounting for 2% of bodyweight and 39% of the body's mineral content.
Calcium
62
99% of Ca in the body is found in mineralised connective tissues, i.e, _______ and _______. The remaining 1% is found in extra-cellular fluid, muscles and other tissues.
Bones and teeth
63
Which 3 hormones work together to tightly regulate calcium levels in the body?
1. Parathyroid hormone
2. Vitamin D
3. Calcitonin
64
Parathyroid hormone, vitamin D and calcitonin tightly regulate the levels of which macro mineral in the body?
Calcium
65
Which hormone up-regulates osteoclasts to increase blood calcium levels?
Parathyroid hormone.
66
Which hormone/vitamin up-regulates calcium absorption in the GIT when calcium levels are low?
Vitamin D
67
Which hormone draws calcium back out of the blood and into the bone, by blocking the action of parathyroid hormone?
Calcitonin
68
Calcium is found mostly in vegetable and dairy foods. However, vegetable sources have the highest bioavailability. True or false?
True
69
List 5 key food sources of calcium.
1. Dark green leafy greens (i.e, kale, rocket)
2. Seeds (i.e, sesame seeds)
3. Nuts (i.e, almonds)
4. Beans (i.e, edamame)
5. Herbs/spices (i.e, sage, coriander)
6. Sardines (incl bones)
7. Dairy (i.e, full fat cows milk)
70
Vegetable foods have 2 x the bioavailability of calcium of dairy foods. True or false?
True
71
List 3 key functions of calcium in the body.
1. Bone health
2. Nerve cell signalling
3. Muscle contraction
4. Blood clotting
5. Making neurotransmitters
72
Which 2 minerals bind together to build bones?
Calcium and phosphorus
73
During which lifestage(s) is high calcium intake most important?
Childhood and adolescence (when bones are growing)
74
Calcium binds to the _________ framework in bone, increasing its density.
Collagen
75
Which mineral is involved in nerve signalling?
Calcium
76
Which mineral plays a role in regulating cardiac muscle function and mediates vasoconstriction?
Calcium
77
Why is using calcium supplements considered controversial?
Because there are links to cardiovascular events, especially when linked to Mg deficiency (calcium contracts, magnesium relaxes).
78
An excess of which mineral can cause increased heart activity and arrhythmias?
Calcium
79
List 2 lifestyle factors that increase calcium levels in our body / give us healthy bones
1. Sunshine - making plenty of vitamin D
| 2. Exercise - build muscle and bone density
80
Why do blood banks add calcium binding factors to blood?
To prevent the blood from clotting in the bag.
| Ca ions are used to activate certain clotting factors.
81
Which mineral is an essential co-factor in the conversion of tryptophan to serotonin?
Calcium
82
Calcium is absorbed by all parts of the small intestine, but especially in the ___________ where conditions are more acidic.
Duodenum
83
Ca is absorbed both actively and passively. Active absorption is controlled by _________ in the form of calcitriol.
Vitamin D
84
Passive absorption of calcium occurs without vitamin D, when Ca is consumed. True or false?
True
85
What percentage of calcium remains unabsorbed and passes out in the faeces?
50 - 70%
86
Why is calcium deficiency (blood levels) incredibly rare?
Because blood levels are typically maintained, even with inadequate dietary intake, at the expense of bones.
87
Is loss of bone mineral density symptomatic or asymptomatic?
Asymptomatic
88
List 3 factors that inhibit absorption of calcium.
1. Low vitamin D status
2. Low stomach acid (Hcl dissolves calcium salts)
3. GI dysfunction
4. High intake of phytates / oxalates
89
List 3 factors that increase excretion of calcium.
1. Menopause (low oestrogen)
2. High caffeine intake
3. Some medications
90
What are oxalates?
Tiny reactive molecules that bind to cations and form crystal compounds that then make the mineral unavailable.
91
List 3 foods that are high in oxalates.
1. Spinach
2. Swiss chard
3. Beetroot
4. Rhubarb
92
The supplementation of which mineral can present a risk of kidney stones and soft tissue calcification, especially when vitamins D and K are deficient?
Calcium.
93
Which of these is in organic form (well tolerated and absorbed), and which is in inorganic form (not well tolerated/absorbed):
Calcium carbonate
Calcium citrate
Calcium carbonate = inorganic (cheap & nasty)
| Calcium citrate = organic (good)
94
Bone health and calcium homeostasis is controlled by __________.
Hormones.
95
Which 3 minerals compete with calcium for absorption?
Magnesium, Iron, Phosphorus
96
Calcium excess can only really be achieved via excessive supplementation or excessive consumption of dairy. True or false?
True
97
What is a cation?
A positively charged ion
98
What is the second most common cation found in the body after potassium?
Magnesium
99
Which mineral serves many body functions and is a co-factor in at least 300 enzymatic reactions?
Magnesium
100
The body contains approximately __ g of magnesium.
25g
101
It's estimated that up to 80% of the body's biochemistry relies on magnesium in some way. True or false?
True
102
Where is magnesium found in the body?
60% in bones
39% in cells and muscles
1% in blood serum
103
Haemoglobin (in blood) and chlorophyll (in plants) are almost identical in structure, with haemoglobin having 4 iron atoms at its core and chlorophyll having 4 _____ atoms at its core.
Magnesium
104
Magnesium is found in all ______ coloured plants, because it's at the core of the chlorophyll molecule.
Green
105
Least 5 food sources of magnesium.
1. Green leafy veggies (swiss chard, spinach)
2. Pumpkin seeds
3. Flax seeds
4. Soy beans (and other green beans)
5. Amaranth & buckwheat
6. Cacao
106
In energy production, which mineral is needed to convert ADP to ATP?
Magnesium
107
________ is a mineral co-factor involved in the modulation of glucose transport; specifically it is needed for the activation of tyrosine kinase enzymes. Therefore it is essential for glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity.
Magnesium
108
List 4 roles of magnesium within the body.
1. Energy production - turning ADP to ATP
2. Glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity
3. Nerve cell signalling
4. Blood thinning
5. Forming bony matrix and tooth enamel
6. Muscle relaxing
7. Sleep and calming
109
__________ is nature's 'relax' mineral.
Magnesium
110
_______ opposes calcium when it comes to blood clotting. Ca promotes clotting, ___ inhibits it.
Magnesium Mg
111
Which mineral is used as a co-factor for GABA synthesis and in the serotonin-melatonin pathway?
Magnesium
112
Where is most magnesium absorbed?
In the distal small intestine (ileum)
113
Which organ primarily regulates magnesium homeostasis?
The kidneys
114
Why don't serum Mg levels accurately reflect Mg status?
Because 99% of magnesium is stored within cells.
115
________ (especially from high-phytate-containing foods) and _________ may inhibit magnesium absorption.
Phosphate and calcium
116
_________ and fructose may enhance magnesium absorption.
Protein
117
What is a phytate?
A storage form of phosphorus, found in some foods.
118
Magnesium _______ can be very effective at relieving constipation.
Citrate
119
Magnesium ________ is one of the most effective forms of magnesium for restoring magnesium level in the cells.
Glycinate
120
Magnesium ______ can be very effective at reducing muscle tension issues and fibromyalgia.
Malate
121
Magnesium _______ is sometimes used for cardiovascular issues.
Taurate
122
Magnesium ______ is used in epsom salt baths.
Sulphate
123
Which type of magnesium is very poorly absorbed orally but has very effective absorption transdermally?
Magnesium sulphate (epsom salts)
124
What is the therapeutic dose of epsom salt per bath?
500g - 1kg (for 20 mins +)
125
Why wouldn't you use high dose magnesium supplements in someone with hypotension?
Because Mg can have a blood pressure lowering effect.
126
List 5 symptoms of Mg insufficiency
1. Fatigue
2. Insomnia
3. Muscle cramps, twitches, spasms
4. Headaches / migraine
5. Stress and anxiety
6. Palpitations
127
Name a medication that depletes magnesium in the body.
The OCP
128
_____ is a co-factor in over 200 metalloenzymes involved in catalytic, structural and regulatory functions.
Zinc
129
What type of enzymes contain metal ions at their core?
Metalloenzymes
130
_____ is a co-factor in superoxide dismutase (SOD), a powerful antioxidant required by all cells exposed to oxygen.
Zinc
131
_____ is a co-factor in alcohol dehydrogenase, an enzyme that helps detoxify / breakdown alcohol in the body.
Zinc
132
Why does zinc requirement increase with intake of alcohol?
Because zinc is a co-factor in the production of alcohol dehydrogenase; the enzyme that detoxifies the alcohol.
133
Which mineral is a co-factor in carboxypeptidase, an enzyme involved in the digestion of proteins?
Zinc
134
____ is the most abundant intracellular trace element (about 2g stored)
Zinc
135
List 5 food sources of zinc
1. Oysters (highest food source by far) & crab
2. Sesame seeds
3. Unrefined grains - rye, oats, amaranth,
4. Legumes - chickpeas
5. Red meat - calf's liver
136
Which mineral is required for the production of sex hormones, and particularly male health.
Zinc
137
Which mineral is required for spermatogenesis?
Zinc
138
Which mineral inhibits 5a-reductase (the enzyme that converts testosterone to the more potent androgen DHT)?
Zinc
139
Which mineral is required for the conversion of T4 to T3?
Zinc
140
List 5 functions of zinc in the body.
1. Thyroid health - T4 to T3 conversion
2. Production of sex hormones
3. Required for spermatogenesis
4. Gene expression & DNA production - wound healing & burns
5. Aids tight junctions in skin and GIT
6. Immune function
141
Which mineral unlocks retinol in the liver to support the eye?
Zinc
142
Which mineral is involved in taste and smell?
Zinc
143
A loss of taste and smell can indicate a _____ insufficiency.
Zinc
144
Tinnitus can indicate a _____ insufficiency.
Zinc
145
Which mineral is incredibly important for digestion, as it is a co-factor for the production of hydrochloric acid?
Zinc
146
Which mineral is involved in the digestion of proteins?
Zinc
147
Zinc absorption rates are around ____ - 40%
20 - 40%
148
Protein generally enhances absorption of zinc (with the exception of casein). True or false?
True
149
List 3 minerals that can inhibit zinc absorption.
1. Calcium
2. Copper
3. Non-haem iron
150
Zinc supplementation antagonises the intake of which other mineral?
Copper
151
List 3 potential causes of zinc deficiency / insufficiency.
1. Malabsorption
2. Phytate-rich diet
3. Poor zinc intake
4. Infections/viruses
152
List 3 populations at higher risk of zinc deficiency
1. The elderly (lower Hcl)
2. Alcoholics
3. Pregnant women
4. Athletes
153
List 4 signs/symptoms of zinc deficiency.
1. Poor sense of taste and smell
2. Recurrent infections
3. Delayed wound healing
4. White spots on fingernails
5. Infertility & low libido
6. Signs of weak digestion (i.e, bloating, fatigue)
7. Erectile dysfunction
8. Extreme response to stress / depression
9. Loss of alcohol tolerance
154
Why are blood tests for zinc ineffective?
Because zinc is bound to proteins in the body
155
Zinc ______ appears to be the best absorbed form of zinc.
Picolinate
156
What is the recommended daily dose of zinc?
15-25mg per day
157
Why do many zinc supplements contain a small amount of copper?
Because zinc is a copper antagonist. Long term zinc supplementation can deplete copper stores, even with a good dietary intake of copper present.
158
_________ is the body's second most abundant mineral.
Phosphorus
159
About 85% of _________ is found combined with calcium in hydroxyapatite crystals of bones and teeth.
Phosphorus
160
Phosphorus is highly reactive and therefore in nature, it is rarely free. It is almost always bound to ______ as '_______' .
Bound to oxygen as phosphate
161
Why is phosphorus deficiency almost unknown?
Because it is an essential constituent of all plant and animal tissues.
162
List 4 food sources of phosphorus.
1. Seeds & nuts
2. Beans & legumes
3. Meat & poultry
4. Fish
5. Dairy
6. Carbonated soft drinks (not recommended!)
163
Which mineral is found in abundance (but not in a good way) in carbonated soft drinks?
Phosphorus (as phosphoric acid)
164
Despite being high in phosphorus, why are carbonated soft drinks not recommended?
Because the phosphorus is as phosphoric acid, which leaches calcium from bones.
165
What is the RDA for phosphorus?
1200 - 2000mgs daily
166
Which mineral makes up the 'P' in ATP?
Phosphorus (bound to oxygen as phosphate)
167
List 4 functions of phosphorus in the body.
1. Energy production - is is a part of ATP
2. Hardness of bones and teeth
3. Muscle contraction (creatinine phosphate)
4. Cell membrane integrity (phospholipids)
168
What is hyperphosphataemia?
Raised blood phosphorus
169
Phosphate intake from natural foods will never lead to toxicity. However, phosphorus used as a preservative (inorganic form) in carbonated soft drinks, processed food, enhanced meats, can lead to _____________ and _________ in children.
Hyperphosphataemia
| Hyperactivity in children
170
Consumption of phosphorus in inorganic form (as a food preservative) could result in the decreased absorption of which other mineral?
Calcium
171
Polyphosphates from food additives can interfere with the absorption of 4 other minerals. List them.
1. Calcium (Ca)
2. Zinc (Zn)
3. Copper (Cu)
4. Iron (Fe)
172
An inorganic form of which mineral is often used in food processing and preservatives?
Phosphorus
173
Hyperphosphataemia (raised blood phosphorus) puts pressure on which organ(s)?
The kidneys
174
What are polyphosphates and where would you find them?
Long chains of phosphate molecules, found in food additives.
175
Which macro mineral is the principal cation inside body cells, and along with sodium chloride, is a key electrolyte in the body?
Potassium
176
List 5 food sources of potassium.
1. Raw spinach
2. Baked potato with skin on
3. Avocado
4. Banana
5. Quinoa, buckwheat, oats
6. Pistachio nuts
7. Sunflower & pumpkin seeds
8. Seafood (clams and crab)
9. Meat (calves liver)
177
Over 90% of potassium is absorbed by the body. True or false?
True
178
Adding table salt to a meal lowers the absorption of which mineral?
Potassium
179
List 4 key functions of potassium in the body.
1. Nerve transmission & electrical impulses
2. Muscle function
3. Lowering high blood pressure
4. Glycogenesis - glucose to glycogen conversion
5. Cell growth and division
180
Name a food/drink source of electrolytes.
Coconut water
250mls contains 600mg of potassium
181
Which mineral is required at a rate of around 2g per day (a high requirement)?
Potassium
182
What is hypokalaemia?
Low/deficient blood potassium
183
What is the most common cause of hypokalaemia?
Excessive potassium loss / loss of electrolytes (rather than lack of intake)
184
List 5 things that can cause hypokalaemia.
1. Excessive sweating
2. Vommitting and diarrhoea
3. Diuretics
4. Chronic kidney disease
5. Laxatives
185
List 5 symptoms of hypokalaemia (potassium deficiency)
1. Muscle cramps
2. Fatigue and weakness
3. High blood pressure
4. Mental confusion / irritability
5. Insatiable thirst
6. Insomnia
186
Why is it relatively difficult to become deficient in potassium?
1. There are lots of potassium rich food sources
| 2. Potassium homeostasis is very tightly regulated by the kidneys
187
Potassium toxicity is not possible from over-eating K-rich foods. However it IS possible from excessive potassium salts or supplements (or kidney disease).
Acute potassium toxicity from supplements can lead to which medical pathology?
Cardiac arrest
188
If someone is low in potassium, why would you advise them to consume lots of potassium rich natural foods, rather than potassium supplements?
Because potassium supplements can cause acute potassium toxicity and cardiac arrest, whereas natural food sources (even those very rich in potassium) can not.
189
Chronic toxicity from which mineral can lead to cardiac irregularities, paralysis of extremities, mental confusion, tingling, weakness, kidney failure and adrenal insufficiency?
Potassium
190
Which macro mineral is the main extracellular cation in the body?
Sodium (Na+)
191
Is sodium's reactivity high or low?
High. Sodium is very highly reactive.
192
Which anion is sodium most commonly bound to?
Chloride (Cl-)
193
NaCl is salt. But which 2 minerals is salt made up of?
Sodium and chloride
194
Common table salt is __% sodium and __% chloride by weight.
40% sodium, 60% chloride
195
Why is table salt a cellular poison?
Because it is highly refined, bleached and treated, and anti-caking agents such as aluminium are added.
All other minerals are removed and the combination of just NaCl remaining is highly damaging to cells.
196
List 4 pathologies that the consumption of table salt can lead to.
1. Atherosclerosis
2. Hypertension
3. Insulin resistance
4. Cancers (i.e, gastric)
197
How is sea salt made?
By evaporating sea water.
It is unprocessed and has a high mineral content (Cu, Mg, Fe). But, it may contain heavy metals (although in VERY small amounts).
198
How is table salt made?
It is gathered from rock salt mines, then refined, heat treated and bleached. Finally, anti-caking agents are added.
199
How is himalayan salt made?
It's sourced from ancient seabeds in the himalayas. It was formed under extremely high pressure over thousands of years and contains deep ocean minerals.
200
_______ salt contains slightly less sodium than table salt and includes 84 trace minerals, which are what make this salt therapeutic.
Himalayan salt
201
What makes Himalayan salt pink in colour?
It's trace mineral content, specifically iron.
202
________ salt is harvested from mineral-rich clay and sand salt trays in France.
Grey / Celtic sea salt.
203
Which type of salt contains more moisture than other types of salt?
Celtic / grey sea salt.
204
Which type of salt has a nutritional profile similar to himalayan salt?
Celtic/grey sea salt
205
What is the main role of sodium?
Regulating extracellular fluid volume (how much fluid we retain or release).
206
What is the RAAS and which mineral is it relevant to?
Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System
Relevant to sodium
207
What is secreted by the kidneys when sodium levels fall?
Renin (an enzyme)
208
Which 4 organs are involved in the Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System (which regulates blood pressure / sodium levels).
Liver
Kidneys
Lungs
Adrenals
209
Which hormone is released by the adrenal glands to increase sodium absorption in the kidneys (increasing BP - because where sodium goes, water follows)?
Aldosterone
210
Sodium and chloride are sufficiently present in most natural foods, so we don't need to add extra salt to our diets. True or false?
True
211
We absorb almost ____% of the sodium and chloride that we consume.
Almost 100%
212
What is the quickest way to reduce sodium in the diet?
Consume whole foods, rather than refined/processed foods.
213
List 3 functions of sodium in the body.
1. Increases blood pressure
2. Nerve impulse transmission
3. Muscle contraction
214
List 2 functions of chloride in the body.
1. Cl is a constituent of stomach acid (HCl)
| 2. Helps to maintain acid-alkaline balance in the body (with sodium)
215
The deficiency of which mineral is often the result of a medical condition?
Sodium
216
Low dietary intake of 3 minerals; ______, _______ and _______ can make us more sensitive to salt and promote sodium-induced hypertension.
Calcium, Potassium, Magnesium
Always remember that minerals work synergistically in the body.
217
Which mineral is the most abundant element on earth?
Iron (Fe)
218
Which mineral plays a crucial role in the development of haemoglobin?
Iron
219
Which 2 forms of iron are the only forms present in the human body?
Ferrous (Fe2+)
| Ferric (Fe3+)
220
The bone marrow uses large quantities of which mineral to produce erythrocytes (and therefore is the largest consumer of it in the body)?
Iron
221
Which mineral gives haemoglobin its oxygen carrying capacity?
Iron
222
In food, we can only absorb the _______ form of iron.
Ferrous (Fe2+)
223
Where in the body would you find iron?
Bone marrow, blood, muscles and in enzymes
224
How much iron do we store in our bodies?
Around 3 - 4g
225
Name the 2 dietary forms of iron.
1. Haem iron (ferrous form - Fe2+)
| 2. Non-haem iron (ferric form - Fe3+)
226
Plant foods contain non-haem iron, whereas animal foods contain __________
Both haem and non-haem iron
227
What is the relationship between ferrous and ferric iron?
Ferric iron cannot be utilised by the body and has to be reduced into the ferrous form.
228
List 4 plant food sources of iron.
1. Lentils
2. Quinoa
3. Kidney beans
4. Dark green leafy veggies - Spinach
5. Pumpkin seeds
6. Herbs & Spices - thyme, coriander
7. Blackstrap molasses
229
List 4 animal food sources of iron.
1. Clams
2. Calve's liver
3. Oysters
4. Prawns, sardines, salmon
230
How much non-haem iron do we absorb from blackstrap molasses?
Over 90% (very efficient absorption)
231
Name the highest food source of haem iron.
Clams
232
Each haemoglobin molecule has __ binding sites for iron.
4
233
Which mineral is a component of myoglobin (stores oxygen in muscles)?
Iron
234
List 4 functions of iron in the body
1. Oxygen transport (via haemoglobin & myoglobin)
2. Energy (ATP) production
3. Thyroid hormone synthesis
4. Immune function (growth and maturation of lymphocytes)
5. Neurotransmitter production (esp. dopamine)
235
What is one of the first signs of iron deficiency?
Fatigue
236
Which mineral is a co-factor of tyrosine hydroxilase - the enzyme that converts tyrosine to dopamine?
Iron
237
Where do we store iron that is not being used for haemoglobin production?
In the storage protein ferritin
238
Why is too much iron worse than not enough iron?
Because iron is a pro-oxidant, and can damage tissues in excess.
239
What is ferritin?
A storage protein in which we store iron for future use.
240
What is the lifespan of an erythrocyte?
3-4 months
241
What happens to iron in erythrocytes after they die?
The spleen and liver dismantle the erythrocytes and recycle the iron to make more erythrocytes.
242
How does the body lose iron?
Via the GI tract, menstruation and bleeding (i.e, cuts and grazes)
243
How does the body cope with high iron levels?
When iron stores are too high, the liver converts ferritin into hemosiderin (another iron storage protein), which releases iron to the body more slowly than ferritin does.
244
What is the difference between ferritin and hemosiderin?
They're both iron storage proteins, but ferritin releases iron to the body more readily. In states of iron excess, the liver converts ferritin into hemosiderin for this reason (as too much circulating iron can be toxic).
245
We don't absorb much iron but what we do absorb we hold on to for dear life! True or false?
True
246
Can humans excrete iron?
No
247
Iron is the only mineral where the RDA is higher for women than men. Why is this?
Because of menstruation (loss of blood and therefore iron)
248
We can't excrete iron, yet it is toxic in excess. So, how do we maintain iron homeostasis?
We control how much iron we absorb. The higher the iron levels in tissues, the more we down regulate gut absorption.
249
What does the enzyme ferric reductase do (in the gut)?
Transforms ferric iron (non-haem) to ferrous iron, so that it can be used.
250
Haem iron has an absorption rate of ___ - ___%
| Non-haem iron has an absorption rate of ___ - ___%
15 - 35%
| 2 - 20%
251
Why do medications like omeprazole inhibit iron absorption?
Because they block stomach acid.
252
Name something that can increase non-haem iron absorption and something that can inhibit it.
Vitamin C increases iron absorption
| Phytates decrease it.
253
Why would you never give an iron supplement without first testing for iron deficiency?
Because the risk of iron overload and resulting toxicity is too high.
254
List 3 things that inhibit absorption of non-haem iron.
1. Phytates
2. Oxalates
3. Polyphenols (some)
4. Calcium & phosphorus (dairy)
5. Tannic acid (tea and coffee)
255
List 5 things you could suggest to optimise an individual's intake of non-haem iron.
1. Eat with a source of vitamin C
2. Build meals around iron rich foods
3. Eliminate nutrient-poor junk foods
4. Avoid drinking tea, coffee and dairy within 2 hrs
5. Eat fermented & sprouted foods, and foods that contain yeast, to reduce phytates.
256
Beeturia can indicate a lack of which mineral?
Iron
257
Excess iron can accumulate in organs and cause damage; it can even be fatal. Which organs are most at risk?
The brain and liver
258
List 3 reasons why iron overload is harmful.
1. Free iron is a pro-oxidant and can cause oxidative damage.
2. Iron is a bacterial growth factor / feeds bacteria
3. Excess iron can accumulate in organs
259
What is haemochromatosis?
A genetic disorder where the individual lacks the ability to down regulate iron absorption in the gut (so they just keep absorbing more and more of it).
260
Why should you avoid giving vitamin C supplements to people with haemochromatosis?
Because vitamin C increases absorption of iron and people with haemochromatosis already have too much iron.
261
Which 3 minerals compete with iron for absorption?
1. Zinc
2. Copper
3. Calcium
262
Does supplementing with zinc enhance or inhibit absorption of iron?
Zinc inhibits iron
263
Which ultra-trace mineral is mainly found in the body as part of the antioxidant 'glutathione peroxidase'?
Selenium
264
What is the role of the enzyme 'glutathione peroxidase'?
It reduces free radicals into water and other harmless molecules (it is an antioxidant enzyme)
265
Selenium is found in food as an organic compound bound to the amino acids _________ and _________
Cysteine and methionine
266
Selenium works very closely with vitamin __ to protect our cells.
Vitamin E.
267
Which part of cells does selenium work on/in, to protect those cells?
The cytosol and mitochondria.
Vitamin A works on cell membranes
268
Which heavy metal antagonises the action of selenium?
Mercury
269
The presence of mercury increases the body's need for which mineral?
Selenium
270
What is the highest food source of selenium?
Brazil nuts
1 brazil nut = 96 mcg selenium
271
List 5 food sources of selenium.
1. Brazil nuts
2. Whole wheat
3. Sunflower seeds
4. Yellowfin tuna, clams, oysters
5. Garlic
6. Mushrooms
7. Calf's liver
8. Pork, turkey, chicken
272
Why should you avoid brazil nuts from China and buy them from South American origin?
Chinese soils have been proven to be low in selenium.
| Selenium is thought to be highest in the soil around south america.
273
List 5 key functions of selenium.
1. Antioxidant (co-factor of glutathione peroxidase)
2. Immunity - antibody production
3. Thyroid function (conversion of T4 to T3)
4. Sperm motility
5. Testosterone metabolism
274
Selenium is mostly absorbed in the ________
| 55 - 85% absorption rate
Duodenum
275
Selenium homeostasis is primarily managed by which organ?
The kidneys
276
Which is more bioavailable - selenium from plant sources (selenomethionine) or selenium from animal sources?
Plant sources
277
What is methionine?
A sulphur based amino acid
278
An elevated T4 and lowered T3 serum level is a functional marker of ______ deficiency.
Selenium
279
'Keshan Disease' affected children in China and was associated with a deficiency of which mineral?
Selenium
280
List 3 symptoms of selenium deficiency.
1. Abnormal heart beat
2. Muscle pain
3. Weakness & dizziness
4. Loss of immune competence
281
Se is among the most toxic of the minerals and the margin between beneficial and harmful intakes is narrow. True or false?
True
282
Efficient methylation is important for detoxification of which mineral?
Selenium
283
Which mineral competes with sulphur?
Selenium
284
A garlic odour on the breath is a classic sign of _______ toxicity / overdose.
Selenium
285
Which trace mineral is a component of cuproenzymes?
Copper
286
Copper is absorbed mostly in the ____ _______, and to a lesser degree, the ________.
Small intestine
| Stomach
287
How is copper excreted?
In the bile
288
We absorb between __ - __% of the copper we take in as food.
30 - 40%
289
Where is copper stored in the body?
In the liver
290
Why is it important to ensure proper gall bladder function if we want to keep copper levels balanced?
Because excess copper is excreted in the bile.
291
List 5 food sources of copper.
1. Sesame seeds
2. Quinoa
3. Shitake mushrooms
4. Avocado
5. Calf's liver
6. Oysters, lobster, crab, prawns
7. Cacao
292
List 3 key functions of copper.
1. Free radical protection, as an antioxidant contributor
2. Cross linking of collagen and elastin, for structure
3. Melanin formation
4. Red blood cell formation & haem synthesis
5. Innate immune system, antibacterial
6. Formation of myelin sheath
7. Conversion of dopamine to noradrenaline ('fight or flight' response)
293
Which trace mineral is a key component of the key antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD)?
Copper
294
Long term supplementation of which mineral can lead to copper deficiency?
Zinc (>50mg day)
295
List 4 signs of copper deficiency.
1. Anaemia
2. Bone fractures
3. Impaired growth
4. Reduced skin pigmentation
5. Recurrent infections
296
Copper deficiency is rare because most foods contain a good amount of copper and we need very little daily (1-2mg). True or false?
True
297
Acute copper toxicity is typically only seen from contaminated ________ ________ (i.e, copper pipes), or ________ disorders.
Contaminated drinking water or genetic disorders
298
Symptoms of copper toxicity include...
Vomitting, diarrhoea, liver/kidney damage, haemolytic anaemia, coma, death
299
Copper overload is more common in women, but why is this?
Because oestrogen can cause copper retention
300
List 3 symptoms of Copper overload (NOT copper toxicity).
1. Emotional instability / ADHD / meltdowns / irritability
2. Intolerance to OCP
3. Low immunity (zinc deficiency)
4. Allergies
5. Acne
6. Skin sensitivity to cheap metal
301
Which female hormone plays a role in balance copper and zinc?
Progesterone
302
Which mineral could you use to counteract a copper overload?
Zinc
303
Which ultra trace mineral is a component of thyroid hormones T3 & T4?
Iodine
304
How much dietary iodine do we absorb?
Almost 100%
305
What is the Earth's main source of iodine?
The ocean
306
Every single cell in the body has a receptor for thyroid hormone. True or false?
True
307
List 5 food sources of iodine.
1. Seaweed / sea vegetables
2. Ocean fish
3. Shellfish
4. Eggs and dairy food (due to fortification)
308
Which is the highest absorbed mineral there is?
Iodine
309
Which mineral might you find in sea mist?
Iodine
310
List 3 functions of iodine.
1. Thyroid function - T3 & T4 hormone synthesis
2. Brain and bone formation in foetus / during pregnancy and infancy
3. Energy metabolism in cells
311
A lack of which mineral might be indicated if TSH and T4 levels are normal but T3 is low? Why?
Selenium. Because it is required for the conversion of T4 to T3
312
What are goitrogens?
Substances in food that interfere with iodine uptake in the thyroid.
313
Consumption of goitrogenic foods may interfere with the absorption of which mineral?
Iodine
314
List 3 goitrogenic foods.
1. Raw brassica vegetables
2. Soya
3. Millet
315
When are goitrogenic foods most likely to interfere with iodine uptake?
When there is already an iodine deficiency present.
316
People with hypothyroidism often have suboptimal levels of ____, ____ and _____, which can exacerbate iodine deficiency.
Zinc, Iron and copper
317
Which other nutrients are required to put iodine to use in the body?
Tyrosine, Zinc, Magnesium, B vitamins
318
Which trace mineral gets it's name from the work 'magic'?
Manganese
319
Intestinal absorption of manganese is very low, between __ - __%
1 - 5%
320
Where is manganese mostly stored in the body?
>40% in bone
| the rest in metabolically active tissues (liver, kidneys, pancreas, brain)
321
List 5 food sources of manganese.
1. Wheat germ
2. Black pepper
3. Ginger
4. Cloves
5. Some shellfish - mussels
6. Hazelnuts
322
List 3 key functions of manganese
1. Metabolism of carbs, amino acids and cholesterol - blood sugar regulation
2. Healthy cartilage and bone
3. Antioxidant - cofactor for MnSOD enzyme
323
Manganese deficiency is not observed in humans on a whole food diet. True or false?
True
324
The deficiency of which mineral can lead to loss of hair colour?
Manganese
325
Manganese competes with ____ for absorption.
Iron
326
Which essential trace mineral potentiates (increases) the action of insulin?
Chromium
327
The main function of which mineral is regulating blood sugar?
Chromium
328
Trivalent chromium and hexavalent chromium. Which is highly carcinogenic and which is beneficial to humans?
Trivalent chromium = beneficial
| Hexavalent chromium = Highly toxic carcinogen
329
Foods that are rich in ______ ___ and _____ can enhance absorption of chromium by up to 4x
Vitamin C and niacin
330
List 4 food sources of chromium.
1. Veggies- broccoli, green beans, potatoes
2. Barley & oats
3. Turkey & beef
4. Black pepper, basil, garlic
331
What are the highest 2 food sources of chromium?
Broccoli and black pepper
332
Which mineral is a component of chromodulin, which enhances the binding of insulin to the receptors?
Chromium
333
Which spice works on the same pathway as chromium, to enhance insulin binding to insulin receptors?
Cinnamon
334
Which mineral works to reduce HbA1C?
Chromium
335
List 3 symptoms of chromium deficiency.
1. Anxiety
2. Sugar cravings
3. Fatigue
4. Afternoon dips in energy
(Symptoms of poor blood sugar control)
336
Which is the 3rd most abundant mineral in the body after calcium and phosphorus?
Sulphur
337
Sulphur is in 4 amino acids. Name them.
Methionine, cysteine, cystine, taurine
338
What is our main dietary source of sulphur?
Amino acids (Methionine, cysteine, cystine, taurine)
339
What is the RDI/RDA for sulphur?
There isn't one!
340
List 4 food sources of sulphur.
1. Alliums - garlic, onion, leeks, chives
2. Brassica veg - glucosinolates are sulphur compounds
3. Legumes - especially soy beans
4. Eggs & dairy
341
List 4 functions of sulphur in the body.
1. Used to create glutathione
2. Used to create insulin
3. Component of keratin (skin, hair) and collagen
4. Phase 2 liver detox
342
List 4 signs / symptoms of sulphur deficiency.
1. Brittle hair and nails
2. Joint pain
3. Slow wound healing
4. Hormone imbalances
343
Which essential ultra-trace mineral is a co-factor in various enzymes involved in detoxification?
Molybdenum
344
- Sulphite oxidase detoxifies toxic sulphites into sulphate
- Xanthine oxidase detoxifies purines into uric acid
- Aldehyde oxidase detoxifies drugs containing aldehydes.
Which trace mineral is a co-factor in each of these enzymes?
Molybdenum
345
What is the richest food source of molybdenum?
Legumes & beans (black eyed beans are the highest source)
346
List 3 food sources of molybdenum.
1. Black eyed beans
2. Green leafy veggies
3. Beef liver
4. Milk
347
Boron is a trace mineral not considered essential to humans but plays a role in mineral metabolism and _____ development.
Bone development
348
Silicon is a trace mineral not considered essential to humans but plays a role in _____ mineralisation and integrity of _________ tissue.
Bone mineralisation and integrity of connective tissue
349
Only a trace of fluoride occurs in the human body, mainly in _____ and _____.
Bones and teeth
