Mine Warfare Flashcards
The US Navy organizes MIW into two subdivisions
Mining and Mine Countermeasures
Offensive MCM
Is any action implemented to prevent the laying of mines by eliminating the requirement for defensive MCM operations
Active MCM
Is reactive in nature & involves directly assailing mines.
Mine Hunting
Is the process of searching the seabed & water column for mines. it is comprised of detection, classification, localization, reacquision, identification, and neutralization.
Mine Sweeping
Is the cleaning of mines by minesweepers using mechanical, influence or explosive gear, which physically removes or destroys the mine.
Defensive MCM
is classified as either passive or active.
Passive MCM
Are measures taken to prevent engagement of the mine and target.
The critical importance of active MCM became apparent in
The late fall of 1990 in Persian Gulf.
The US began MCM operations in ________. WE had no knowledge of the Iraqi minelaying operations and therefore no idea of the positions of the mines. This lack of info resulted in the damage of to the __________ and _________.
February 1991. USS Princeton & the USS Tripoli.
Coalition forces successfully countered nearly 1,300 Iraqi Mines in the _______.
MCM segment of the Desert Storm.
Passive MCM involves the process of _______
Reducing the threat from influence mines by way of threat location to risk the reduction of instead of physically eliminating the mines.
influence mines activate at a _______
Distance when triggered by a ships acoustic, magnetic, or pressure characteristics.
The british developed the first _________ during ________
Passive MCM self protective measures. WW2 against German magnetic influence mines.
These ship treatment techniques continue today and include ______.
Degaussing to reduce target ship’s magnetic characteristics
Quieting to reduce target ship’s sound
Reducing transit speed to decrease the pressure created by target ship.
Degaussing
A process which reduces the ship’s magnetic field by creating a magnetic field that is, as nearly as possible, equal & opposite to the ship’s permanent & induced magnetism
Mining
Focuses on the design, development & laying of mines. This includes using mines to protect or defend national waters, or using mines to hinder or impede enemy ships
MCM
Focuses on developing, producing, & operating all forms of MCM equipment
MCM is further broken down into two areas
Offensive MCM and Defensive MCM
References
NWP 3-15: Naval Mine Warfare
The five Recurring Themes
Mine Warfare tail chase
Mines as cheap, effective weapons
Intelligence, Surveilance, & Reconnaissance (ISR)
Force Protection
MCM Cycle
ISR
Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance
The evolution of technologies often results in a
Tail chase between mines and MCM
Developments that came after WWI from Tail Chase
Magnetic and Acoustic sweeping devices
Minehunting sonar
Counter - counter measure devices
ship counter and delay arm
Ship counter
prevents the mine from destoning until a preset number of ships pass.
Delay Arm
Causes a mine to remain unarmed for a set of period of time after its laid
Developments that came in WWII from Tail Chase
Use of submarines to covertly lay mines & use of aircraft to lay large numbers of mines.
US Navy went in search of additional MCM vessels
Today, the US Navy’s renewed MCM vision calls for emphasis on ISR efforts to shape & prepare the environment prior to mining. This includes
Increased priority to technical exploitation of threat mines.
MIW indications & warning tasking & dissemination at all command levels.
Rules of engagement to counter hostile mines.
Environmental databases, like MineNet Tactical (MNT) & the INTELINK contingency planning tool.
CSG
Carrier Strike Groups
ESG
Expeditionary Strike Groups
Admiral Zunwalts focus on the promising _____ aslo contributing to the reduction of the
AMCM force, SMCM Force
AMCM
Airbourne Mine Countermeasure
SMCM
Surface Mine Countermeasure
As a direct result of the AMCM and SMCM forces the US Navy was not initially prepared to to address the mining campaign of
Iran in the 1980’s and drifting mines from Iraq
Rotation crews manned the _____ and the material readiness of these ships suffered.
Ocean going Mine Sweepers
MSO’s
Ocean going Mine Sweepers
LCS
Littoral Combat Ships
Tail chase involves both _____
mine developers and MCM forces trying to stay ahead of each other developments.
Countries with less developed navies can use ________
Mines as a tool to delay, frustrate, or even defeat more industrialized navies as they are cheap and effective weapons.
ISR is the best way to ______
Ensure success in any MCM operation
The availability of resources for MIW suffers during
Peacetimes
U.S. Civil war time period
1861-1865
World War 1 time period
1914-1918
World war 2 time period
1939- 1945
Korean War time period
1950-1953
Vietnamese Conflict time period
1965-1973
Iran/Iraqi War, Operation Desert Shield/Storm, Operation Iraqi Freedom time period
1973 and beyond
Spanish American War time period
1898
American Revolutionary War
1700’s, 1775-1783
Who is David Bushnell
American Inventor, developed the first known sea mine during the revolutionary war in 1776
First sea mine was a
tar covered wooden beer keg filled with black powder & a flint-lock firing mechanism suspended a few feet below the water’s surface by a float. A light shock would release the hammer & fire the powder charge. Once adrift, it relied on the tides & currents to bring it into contact with the enemy.
In 1777, under orders from General Washington _____________, General Washington used the kegs again in _________in an attempt to destroy a fleet of British warships anchored in the ____________
two of Bushnell’s kegs were used against the British Fleet in New London, Connecticut.
1778
Delaware River off Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
In order to counter the threat posed by keg mines, the British used the first MCM efforts, to include:
Exploding the kegs with musket fire
Steering their vessels away from the kegs.
The first relatively large scale use of mines occurred during
The US Civil War
In a message to the US Secretary of the Navy in ______, Union Admiral ________ expressed his change of attitude.
1864
David Farragut
Keg Torpedo
Tarred oak barrels w/wood end cones for buoyancy & stability.
When the glass & chemical fuse contacted the ship, the chemicals broke into a chamber filled w/alcohol & liquid gun powder & exploded the tightly packed charge of powder housed in the sides of the barrel
Singer mine
Named for its inventor, brother of the sewing machine inventor.
Had an inverted truncated cone that floated with a pocket of air.
Activated by an iron rod, the plunger drops a plate which releases a plunger & springs against a percussion cap within the charge, which explodes the mine.
Special groups within the War Department
The Confederates set up special groups w/in the War Department to deal w/the development & operational use of mines – The Submarine Battery Service, the Torpedo (Mine) Bureau, & the Secret Service.
Un-sweepable secondary mines (first counter-counter measure).
As Union MCM efforts became more successful, Confederates developed supposedly un-sweepable secondary mines at a distance. These mines would explode under the minesweeping vessel while it was contending with the main mine casing.
In one of the major mine engagements of the war, the Confederates used mines successfully at Vicksburg, against the Union Navy in
December of 1862
The USS Cairo
a Union ironclad, was providing force protection for small boats involved in a mine clearance expedition down the Yazoo River
How long did it take for the USS Cairo to sink?
Within 12 minutes
What was the mistake that causes the USS Cairo to sink?
The boats encountered difficulties clearing the mines, so they open fired on the mines. The Commanding officer mistook that as an attack he maneuvered the ship to protect the boats. Trying to fix his mistake the ship resumed course. The Cairo came under fire and went over two electrically controlled mines.
In an effort to counter Confederate mines, the Union Navy developed the first MCM tactics
Bow rake for minesweeping
Anchorage nets (grapnel hooks & line drags)
Mine raft
Intelligence gathering:
Scouting pontoon boats
Shore search parties
Battle of Mobile Bay, Alabama 1864
After conducting mine watching reconnaissance operations for over a month, the Union Navy was able to shut down one of the two remaining Confederate ports during this battle.
The Confederates had laid _______ in three staggered mines lines in Mobile Bay.
180 mines.
What ship detonated a mine and sank in seconds, killing 94 men?
The USS Tecumseh
Who uttered the famous words: “Damn the torpedoes – full speed ahead!”
Admiral Farragut
British Developments:
Established a group of Royal Engineers & tasked them to develop mines & minefields. Along with a procedure for placing a Protective Minefield around a temporary base. The HMS Vernon was established in 1886 as a torpedo school & principal research & development station for mines.
American Developments:
Evolution of technology after the Civil War led to the development of a more reliable firing mechanism, which is still in use today. As such, a mine developed in WWI is just as effective as one developed today.
German Developments:
Dr. Heinrich Hertz developed a method to enable mines to fire independently of an outside detonator. The Hertz Horn – a carbon plate, zinc plate, & bichromate solution contained in a glass tube inside a lead horn. Since the firing energy was stored chemically, the Hertz Horn had an indefinite effective life.
Who developed a method to enable mines to fire independently of an outside detonater?
Dr. Heinrich Hertz
The Hertz Horn
a carbon plate, zinc plate, & bichromate solution contained in a glass tube inside a lead horn.
Russian Developments:
During the Russo-Turkish War in 1877, the Russians used mines extensively to deny the Turks access to the Danube. This minimized the influence of the Turkish Navy on land campaigns
This battleship exploded and sank in Havana harbor on Feb 15th, with the loss of 266 men. The explosion was caused by a mine.
USS Maine
Less than a week after America declared war on Spain, who sought to destroy the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay.
Rear Admiral George Dewey
What happened on the night of April 30, 1898
Dewey ran the passage into Manila Bay. The Spanish artillery made such powerful splashes the crew mistook them for mines & cried “Remember the Maine”. Nonetheless, the fleet successfully entered the bay without detonating any mines & defeated the Spanish fleet.
Russo- Japanese War time period
1904- 1905
Both the Russians & Japanese used mines for the first time as offensive weapons during this war. As well as conducted MCM Operations.
Russo- Japanese War
What year did Japan take control of Korea which remained under Japanese until the end of World War 2.
1910
Catenary Sweep
Involves two tugs towing a wire weighted down with iron sinkers to sever mine mooring cables
The Russians also developed the world’s first ships dedicated
laying mines
What played a significant role in the “war to end all wars”
MIW
German Submarines are called
U-Boats
In the summer of 1918, the Americans & British conducted the largest mining campaign in history
the North Sea Barrage
What was the purpose of the North Sea Barrage
to prevent U-Boats from gaining access to the Atlantic by sailing around Great Britain to the north.
How many minesweepers did it take to clear the North Sea Barrage
82
MIW played a very significant role in the “War to End All Wars,” as both Allied & Axis powers laid over
240,000 mines during WWI, which sunk over 200 warships.
Dardanelles-Gallipoli Campaign time period
Feb- March 1915
The Dardanelles is a strait between
between Europe & Turkey & are overlooked by high cliffs on the Gallipoli Peninsula
On the outbreak of the war, the Dardanelles Straits were under the control of
of Turkey. The Turks had laid several minefields to block access to the straits.
On the 18th of February 1915 (darndanelles)
eighteen battleships entered the straits. The French battleship Bouvet struck a mine, heeled over, capsized & disappeared. Soon afterwards two more ships, HMS Irrestible & HMS Ocean hit mines.
What two major ships were used in the Dardanelles - Gallipoli Campaign
HMS Irrestible and HMS Ocean
On the 19th of February,1915 (Darndanelles)
the British attacked the Turkish forts at the Dardanelles. The minesweepers were brought forward & managed to penetrate six miles inside the straits & clear the area of mines. The minesweepers were sent forward to clear the next section but they were forced to retreat when they came under heavy fire from the Turkish batteries
By the time the allied fleet retreated in the DG Campaign of 1915 how many men were killed?
Over 700 men
Dover Mine Barrage
The British laid the Dover Mine Barrage between the coasts of France & England. Its purpose was to prevent German U-Boats from entering the Atlantic through the English Channel. This barrage damaged 10 U-Boats.
What was the mine of choice for Allied forces in both the North Sea Barrage & the Dover Barrage
Mark 6, which contained 300 pounds of TNT
K device/ Antenna Mine
Another device developed & used by the US in WWI to combat the German U-Boat threat was the K-Device, or antenna mine. This mine made use of the fact that a steel ship coming into contact with a copper wire in salt water could produce a galvanic current to fire a mine.
Galvanic Action:
A direct current (DC) imposed into the firing circuit of the mine by the contact between the hull of the passing ship & the copper antenna of the mine that creates a voltaic charge, similar to a battery’s charge.
This mine increases the kill range of moored mines approximately threefold while also targeting submerged submarines at varying depths
Antenna Mine
In an attempt to trap German U-Boats in the North Sea, the British Navy laid influence mines off the coast of
Great Britian
in World War 2 The German defensive mining strategy sought to prevent
Allied amphibious assault on Europe, and to prevent British surface & submarine raiders from interrupting coastal commerce. The Germans called this mining effort “The Western Wall.”
The major tasks of US minesweepers were to:
Accompany all invasion forces
Carry out daily exploratory sweeps
Respond quickly when other craft discovered a
minefield.
Clear mines laid in these areas
World War 2 MCM addresses the threat of influencing mines by
Shipboard Degaussing Systems (British)
Deperming
First Minehunting Ships (US Navy)
Mechanical & Influence minesweeping systems
Anti Sweep Devices such as Explosive Grapnels, Delayed release Mines, Ship Counters
Deperming (British):
A procedure for lowering the permanent magnetism of ships & submarines to protect them against magnetic detection vessels & enemy sea mines, & is conducted at shipyards following construction or extended overhauls
Oropesa Mechanical Minesweeping was created by the
British
WW 2 Recommendations included giving MCM high priority in order to:
Prevent minelaying through detection, destruction, or diversion of minelayers
Develop devices & systems for locating & destroying mines on the sea bottom.
Develop new equipment & techniques for sweeping mines.
Wooden hull minesweepers with few magnetic materials were designed to replace steel-class ships. These included:
65 Ocean-going Minesweepers (MSOs)
22 Coastal Minesweepers (MSCs)
MSC’s
Coastal Minesweepers
UQS-1
Mine hunting Sonar
This was the first time the US Navy used helicopters to spot mines in the path of sweepers.
Wonson Harbour
This conflict saw the emergence of a new family of mines called “destructors,” & a MIW battle waged inland in rivers & other waterways rather than at sea.
Vietnam Conflict
The MIW aspect of the conflict consisted of three distinct mining campaigns:
Riverine MCM
Mining of North Vietnamese ports by US
US MCM in the North Vietnamese ports
NVA Mine
North Vietnamese
VC Mine
Viet Cong
MSB
Shallow Draf Minesweeper boats
Operation Pocket Money May 1972- january 1973
In response to the North Vietnamese force buildup, & with the approval of President Nixon, the US began mining North Vietnamese ports on May 8, 1972.
Results of US Mining Campaign
the mining campaign had a significant effect on North Vietnam’s ability to continue its attack into South Vietnam, , the North Vietnamese attack eventually ground to a halt.
Operation End Sweep- Task Force 78
As part of the peace agreements in January, 1973, the MIW Command staff established Task Force 78 to conduct Operation End Sweep to remove the mines laid during the war.
In 1973, as the Vietnam Conflict was drawing to a close, international negotiations ended another series of conflicts between Israel & Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, & Syria in the Yom Kippur War.
Suez Canal Crisis
What ships did the Suez Canal Crisis MCM operated off of
USS Iwo Jima and USS Inchon
Mines of August Crisis 1984
Began on July 9, 1984 when the Soviet Merchant ship KNUD JESPERSON reportedly suffered minor damage from a mysterious underwater explosion in the northern Gulf of Suez. Within three months, 19 additional ships under the flags of 15 different nations claimed to be victims of minefields apparently laid in the Red Sea by Libya.
What soviet merchant ship suffered minor damage from a mysterious underwater explosion?
Knud Jesperson
Iran/Iraq war 1980-1988
The Iraqis laid mines in the Shatt al-Arab waterway & the Iranians were mining the Straits of Hormuz.
To provide protection to these ships, the US reflagged 11 Kuwaiti tankers as
US vessels in Operation Earnest Will
EOD
Explosive Ordinance Disposal
What happened in 1983 during the Iran/Iraqi War
moored mines of both sides had broken loose & drifted into the Persian Gulf, threatening oil tankers & other neutral shipping parties. The Kuwaitis alone found ten contact mines near their Al-Ahmadi oil terminal. This was in direct violation of international law.
Under the lead of the United States, the world reacted swiftly. Allied forces positioned themselves to prevent a further invasion into Saudi Arabia. This multi-national effort became known as
Operation Desert Shield
When Allied forces launched an offensive campaign against Iraq to repel the invasion of Kuwait, the mission became known as
Operation Desert Storm
Persian Gulf Intelligence Failure
The US was not able to land Marines in Kuwait for the intended amphibious assault. The planned starting point for MCM operations proved to be well inside the Iraqi minefields
On February 18, 1991, the US assault force retreated to the eastern Gulf due to the threat of an Iraqi anti-ship missile attack. In the process, the ________ struck a WWII moored contact and suffered a 16’ x25’ hole in its hull, a few hours later _______ did not fare as well.
USS Tripoli and USS Princeton
Amphibious Plan 1990
After UN Forces commenced wartime Operation Desert Storm, MCM forces were again needed & their operational tempo rose markedly. Acting on US intelligence estimates of the mine threat, US & British MCM forces cleared a channel toward Kuwait for the advancing amphibious assault force.
The MCM lessons learned from Desert Storm & Desert Shield seemed timeless, particularly with respect to the following:
No single command in the Navy was in charge of mine warfare.
No staffs were dedicated to the operational & tactical application of MCM forces.
Surface & Airborne MCM did not have support platforms that could sustain them during operations.
Surface, Airborne, & EOD MCM detachments rarely trained together for MCM operations
What did the Suez Canal see mining as
Weapon in terrorism
The Iraqis used mines to prevent
a US amphibious assault in Operation Desert Storm.
World War II introduced what kind of methods and mines
Airbourne deployment methods and influence mines
ROW mines
Rest of the World Mines
References to US and ROW Mines
NAVSEA US Mine Familiarizer
Janes Undersea Weapons Systems (UWS) Mines
The smallest mine is in the ______lb. category & the largest is _______ lbs
500, 2000
Anti-Invasion Mine type
A mine-type, with a flat or half-spherical disk shape with three stakes that allow it to be driven into a river or seabed. Allows minelaying over a wide area while covering a minimal distance; low-profile shape makes it difficult to detect.
Rising Rocket Mine Type
A mine-type (projectile weapon) carrying a warhead that is powered & propelled by a rocket engine, designed to travel
Limpet Mine type
An explosive type mine that can be attached to the hull of a ship
Diversionary Mine Type
Nearly non-magnetic housing; timed fuse settings; once in place & activated, it cannot be removed.
VBIED
Vehicle Born Improvised Explosive Device
The US Navy inventory of mines primarily consists of
air delivered influence mines
There are specific scientific principles that apply to both Mining & MCM.
These principles include
Magnetics
Acoustics
Pressure
Environment
Sounds a ship generates as it moves through the water can set off what kind of mine
Accoustic Mine
Components of Earths Magnetic Field References
OPNAVINST C8950.2 (Series)
Degaussing Technical Manual S9475-AF-OMI-010
Magnetic Silencing Technical Manual S9086-QN-010/CH 475R2
What allows ships to stay stationary for a extended period of time
The earths magnetic field
Acoustic Resistance
Opposition to the flow of sound through a surface
Bathythermograph
A device for recording temperature relative to depth (pressure) in the ocean
Elastic Medium
A substance or material that acts as a means of transporting or transmitting something & is capable of returning to its initial form or state after being distorted or compressed.
Geophone
an electronic receiver designed to pick up seismic vibrations.
Seismic:
Caused by vibrations in the earth
Silencing
: Minimizing or reducing the signature produced by naval vessels to improve their ability to operate with stealth.
Sonar (SOund NAvigation & Ranging):
A system using transmitted & reflected underwater sound waves to detect & locate submerged objects.
Thermocline
A layer of water where the vertical temperature gradient is greater than that in the water above it or in the water below it.
Soundwaves have at least three measurable characteristics with which you should be familiar
Wavelength
Frequency
Amplitude (energy or intensity
The wavelength of a soundwave is
the distance between two pressure flucuations or sound waves
Frequency is the number of
soundwaves that pass a specific time
Amplitude
measures the amount of energy in a soundwave.
Salinity
Is the amount of salt in water. Increases in salinity increase the speed of sound, though the effect is minimal.
Pressure
Is caused by water depth, which causes the speed of sound to increase proportionally with the increase in depth. Like salinity, the effect of pressure on the speed of sound in seawater is minimal.
Temperature
The speed of sound increases 4 to 8 ft. per second with each degree of increased water temperature. It is the biggest factor affecting the speed of sound in water. It is also the most important factor.
Some environmental considerations for mining include:
Bio-Fouling
Bottom Conditions
Sea Ice
Tides & Currents
Water Clarity, Depth, Salinity, & Temperature
Winds, Seas & Swells
Bio Fouling
Is caused by marine life & it can degrade the performance of acoustic mine sensors & Minehunting sonars, & produce an increase in ambient background noise
Burial
The nature &topography of the ocean bottom affects the degree to which a mine will bury itself.
There are three types of mine burial:
Impact
Scouring
Sand-ridge migration
Temperature
An increase in water temperature will result in an increase in the speed of sound underwater. The temperature of surface water in tropical & temperate regions will be greater than that of the subsurface water. In polar regions, the converse is true.
Pressure
As depth increases, so too does pressure. An increase in pressure will result in an increase in the speed of sound underwater.
Salinity
Salinity of near shore waters varies somewhat similar to the way that temperature varies. The least saline water will generally lie close to shore near fresh water runoffs, whereas the most saline water will like at greater depths in the open ocean.
Sound Velocity Profile
Sound velocity increases as the temperature, pressure, or salinity increase.
If water is warmest at the surface but becomes steadily colder with depth, sound will travel faster at the surface than at greater depths.
If a sonar signal is projected horizontally, the top signal will be traveling through the water in which the velocity is higher & the bottom signal will be traveling through the water in which the sound velocity is lower.
The lower signal is refracted, or bent downward.
MNV Systems
Mine Neutralization Vehicle
The sea bottom has a direct impact on
Mine hunting and Minesweeping
The sea bottom has three types of topography
smooth rippled and rough
NOMBO:
These are objects such as rock outcroppings, coral reefs, fish traps, automobile engines, or 55 gallon drums, that give mine-like responses on Minehunting sonar. Each contact classified as mine-like must be identified as a mine or non-mine.
Illumination
: Generally decreases as water depth increases. Turbid water also reduces illumination.
Absorption
Sunlight is a component of the visual light spectrum. As you go deeper, red light is absorbed first, next is yellow, then green, & finally blue.
Scattering
Light rays deflected by water molecules & suspended particles in the water.
Sonar effectiveness
Movement of marine organisms in the water can increase ambient background noise that limits the effectiveness of Minehunting sonar.
Equipment:
Biological fouling on equipment can limit the use of both Minehunting & Minesweeping gear
EOD
Dangerous organisms such as sharks, barracuda, moray eels, etc., can limit the use of EOD divers.
Surf Zone
o’-10’
Very shallow Water
10-40’
Shallow Water
40-200’
Deep Water
Over 200’
Water depth limits
the safe operating of depths of MCM vessels
Water depth affects
MCM tactics by imposing operational constraints for MCM assets and equipment
Acoustic & magnetic minesweeping will experience the effects of
temperature, pressure, & salinity.
Absorption
It is the progressive loss of sound intensity due to distance.
Spreading
Another factor that affects sound underwater is spreading. It is the progressive loss of sound intensity as the soundwave’s frontal area expands.
The three types of reverberation:
Surface Reverberation
Bottom Reverberation
Volume Reverberation:
Surface Reverberation
Shows up on sonar video displays as a fairly large area of intermingled echoes that look like a single, large echo with varying intensities
Bottom Reverberation
Has a similar cause, appearance, & effect on sonar as does Surface Reverberation.
Volume Reverberation
Also causes many difficulties in detecting sound. This is mainly due to the Deep Scatter Layer (DSL), which is a horizontal layer of closely spaced small marine animals. The thickness of the DSL varies from several meters to tens of meters
DSL
Deep Scatter Layer
Reflection
When sound traveling through sea water encounters another material that is of the same acoustic resistance as sea water, it will travel through the material.
A sonar system uses
soundwaves to detect & locate underwater objects. Sonars play a major role in MCM operations
Propagation is the
movement of soundwaves through a medium
Propagation theory
Propagation theory tries to describe the path that sound follows in the water.
The two theories of propagation theory
Normal Mode Theory
Ray Path Theory
Normal Mode Theory states that
as a soundwave travels from the source through the water it weakens.
Ray Path Theory states that
that while the speed of a soundwave remains constant along the horizontal plane, this is not the case in the vertical plane.
Propagation Loss
As a soundwave propagates, it loses some of its energy in the water. This loss of energy is called propagation (or transmission) loss, & it is dependent upon the distance the soundwave travels & the frequency of the wave energy.
Propagation loss includes a combination of several types of losses:
Spreading Loss
Attenuation Loss
Bottom Loss
Spreading Loss
Energy loss as a result of the distance the soundwave travels
Attenuation Loss
Energy loss as the soundwave travels through a medium
Bottom Loss
Energy loss as a result of sound reflecting off the ocean floor.
Refraction
Is the bending of a sound ray as a result of a change in seawater temperature, salinity, or pressure.
Changes of temperature & pressure in ocean at various depths creates:
A warmer surface layer
A cooler layer directly beneath the surface layer (thermocline)
The coldest layer of deep ocean water
Sonar signals travel quickly through the warm layer & slow dramatically when they enter the cooler layer below.
Refraction occurs when soundwaves travel vertically through layers with different properties. This creates a shadow zone that allows submarines & mines to become invisible to sonar signals.
Submarine sonar systems with a bathythermograph can accurately determine where the shadow zone lies & adjust the direction of its sonar signals to anticipate refraction
Gradient
The direction that soundwaves travel in the ocean medium is also determined by the sound speed (velocity) gradient, which is the change in sound speed with depth in a water column.
Isothermal Gradient
Temperature is the same in all parts of a given water column.
Isovelocity Gradient
Sound velocity is the same in all parts of a given water column.
Negative Gradient
: Temperature & velocity decrease significantly with depth, resulting in a downward bending (refraction) of the sound beam.
Positive Gradient
: Temperature & velocity increase significantly with depth, resulting in an upward bending (refraction) of the sound beam
Surface (mixed) Layer:
The relatively warm top layer of water at the ocean surface that is susceptible to daily changes due to mixing caused by heating, cooling, wind, & wave action
Main (permanent)Thermocline
: The cooler layer of water between the surface layer & the ocean bottom that is characterized by negative temperature, velocity gradients, or both
Deep Water Layer
The layer of water between the lower edge of the main thermocline & the ocean bottom that is characterized by constant temperature & a positive velocity gradient
SOVEL
Sound Velocity
Conservation of energy principle
(Fixed) Total energy = Potential energy + Kinetic energy
Potential Energy
Stored energy. In this example, potential energy is stored water pressure. If the water is motionless, then all of the energy is potential energy
Kinetic Energy
Unleashed energy. If the water moves (has velocity), then there is kinetic energy present
The Conservation of Energy Principle states that
while energy can take many forms, it can neither be created nor destroyed. For example, water in a container has a fixed amount of total energy.
A ship in motion causes the water to move. Consequently, this creates a pressure reduction known as the
Bernoulli Effect
BPA
Bottom Pressure Amplitude
A ship’s pressure signature is measured as
BPA
The BPA that a mine senses is determined by the following
Wave length, wtaer depth, and wave amplitude
The MCM mission is to
permit US & Allied warships & merchant vessels use of the seas for entering & exiting ports as necessary for the continuance of a war effort without unacceptable damage or losses from mines.
MCM Goals
Determining the presence or absence of mines.
Locating non-mined waters.
Reducing the danger presented by mines.
Providing the most maneuver area in the least amount of time with the least residual threat to transitors & minimal risk to MCM forces.
Standard metrics give the planner the ability to quantitatively employ MCM forces & evaluate MCM operations.
Reconnaissance
Determines the extent of the mined area after the determination of the presence of mines.
Breakthrough
A limited time constraint to minimize the mine threat to shipping
Exploratory
Determines whether or not mines are present in the assigned mission area
Attrition
: Involves the continued removal of mines because the enemy reseeds the minefield
Clearance
Removes the mine threat through the safe means of detonation
The five MCM objectives
exploratory, reconnaissance, breakthrough, attrition, & clearance
Color Code Pink is
Top Secret
Color Code Red is
Secret
Color Code Yellow Is
Confidential
Color Code Blue Is
Unclassified
Color Code White is
NATO
Administrative Communications
Communications about logistics or routine business matters
Tactical Communications
Communications about information having a vital bearing on disposition, movement, or of employment forces. This information is transmitted directly to warfare commanders & other units of the force.
NECOS
Has overall supervision of the net, opens & closes the net, grants & denies entry to the net, corrects errors made on the net, & maintains discipline on the net
Free Net
Is one in which member stations do not have to request permission from the net control station to transmit.
This is the most commonly used tactical net at the small unit level.
The member stations are required to advise the NECOS when they have to drop off the net for any reason
Directed Net
A directed net is one in which the NECOS strictly controls all traffic on the net.
Member stations must request permission from NECOS in order to transmit any traffic to stations other than NECOS
Delayed Executive Method
When transmitting tactical messages using the delayed executive method, the procedural word (proword) “execute to follow” is transmitted immediately before the message text.
The signal of execution is transmitted later using the proword “standby – execute.” This is sent at the instant of execution
Immediate Executive Method
In cases of urgency, using the immediate executive method, use the proword “immediate execute” to commence the signal & “standby - execute” to end the signal.
A covered circuit
any circuit withcryptographic protection
An uncovered circuit is
any circuit that is not cryptographically covered
Four Ways to monitor a radio net
Guard, Cover, Copy, Listen
3 steps to Guard
Listen, be ready to transmit (respond), keep a log of all transmissions
3 steps to Cover
Listen, may not be ready to transmit (respond), keep a log of all transmissions
2 steps to Copy
Listen, keep log of all transmissions
2 steps to Listen
Listen, keep log of all transmissions to or from your station
Beadwindow
Is used to alert circuit operators that an unauthorized disclosure of information or EEFI violation has occurred over a non-secure circuit.
This proword is followed by a number that states what EEFI violation is being committed.
The only proper response is “Roger, out.”
Essential Elements of Friendly Information (EEFI)
Are specific items of information that, if disclosed, could have a negative impact on friendly operations.
Include information on position, capabilities, operations, electronic warfare, personnel, & COMSEC, or information transmitted on the wrong circuit.
EMCON
Is the management of electromagnetic & acoustic emissions.
It is used to prevent an enemy from detecting, identifying, & locating friendly forces.
It is also used to minimize electromagnetic interference among friendly systems
Gingerbread
Is used to inform all units on the net of a suspected intruder.
Roger
Meaning, “I understand.”
Wilco
Meaning, “will comply.”
May only be used by a Commanding Officer or a pilot in command of his aircraft.
COMSEC
VOice COmmunication Security
COMSEC is divided into four areas
Crypto Security, Physical Security, Transmission Security, Emission Security
Crypto Security
The provision of technically soundcryptosystems & their proper use
Physical Security
All physical measures necessary to safeguard classified equipment, material, & documents from access or observation by unauthorized persons.
Transmission Security
The application of measures designed to protect transmissions from interception & exploitation by means other than cryptanalysis.
Emission Security
: Protection resulting from all measures taken to deny unauthorized persons information of value that might be derived from interception & analysis ofcompromising emanations from crypto-equipment & telecoms systems
Transmission (or Self-Authentication
Is a procedure in which a transmitting station establishes its own validity without the participation of the receiving station.
This system is used only when a one-time authentication is needed to confirm the authentication
Challenge & Reply:
Is a prearranged procedure in which a subject requests authentication of another, & the latter establishes validity with a correct reply.
the following general security measures must be taken by radiotelephone transmission operators to increase transmission security:
Keep transmission time to a minimum.
Eliminate unnecessary transmissions.
Use the least amount of transmission power consistent with reliable communications.
Eliminate unnecessary transmitter tuning & testing
There are 5 Ground Monitoring Stations:
Hawaii
Ascension Island
Diego Garcia
Kwajalein
Colorado Springs.
This network of monitoring stations collect & relay data collected from the satellites to the master control station, where it is processed to determine satellite position & signal accuracy
Selective Availability:
A policy adopted by the DoD to introduce intentional clock noise into the GPS satellite signals, thereby degrading their accuracy for other than “approved” civilian, governmental, & military users.
LOS
Law of the Sea
is the most recent major development in international law governing activities on, over, & under the world’s seas & ocean.
The 1982 United Nations Convention on the LOS
The LOS This treaty produced a number of provisions that addressed:
Maritime Zones (Legal or Navigational Regimes)
Navigation & Overflight Rights
Transit passages
Pollution controls
Protection of the marine environment
Scientific research
Internal (or inland) waters are all enclosed waters & waterways that are landward of the low-water line, such as:
Lakes/Rivers
Bays/Harbors
Canals/Lagoons
A territorial sea is part of the
sovereign territory of a coastal nation, &, therefore, it is subject to limited rights in the international community.
National, or territorial waters, are all
unenclosed waters that begin at a nation’s low-water line along its coast (the baseline) & extend out to 12 nm, as well as all internal waters.
Contiguous Zone
Within the contiguous zone, other nations have freedom of navigation.
EXtended to 24mn
Exclusive Economic Zone
Allows a nation to control the living & nonliving resources of the sea from the outer edge of its territorial waters (at 24 nm) to the 200 nm limit, while allowing freedom of navigation to other nations beyond the 12 nm territorial waters limit
High Seas
Are those regions of the ocean that fall outside the 200 nautical mile EEZ of any nation.
Inncocent Passage
Within territorial seas & archipelagic waters, warships of all nations enjoy the right of innocent passage only for the reason of continuous or swift routing. This includes the ability to stop & anchor as required by normal navigation or in distress situations.
Pueblo Incident
In 1968, North Korean military forces attacked the intelligence ship USS Pueblo, claiming the ship was in North Korean national waters. The USS Pueblo was, in fact, within international waters, outside the 12 nm legal North Korean territorial limit.
What year did Libya illegally claimed much of the gulf of Sidra called the “line of death”
1973 Gulf of Sidra Incident
When did the USS Nimitz operating near the line of death
1981
. Navy policy mandates that warships must adhere to
traffic separation schemes when practicable & compatible with the military mission.
International Waters
Requires Consent from coastal nation
Territorial Seas Archipelagic Waters (National Waters)
Innocent Passage ( surface right only)
International Straits (National Waters)
Transit Passage ( surface and submerged passage)
Archipelagic Sea Lanes (National Waters)
Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage
Continguous Zone (INternational Waters)
High Seas Freedom
Exclusive Economic Zone (INternational Waters)
High Seas Freedom (except for fishing and marine scientific research)
High Seas (INternational Waters)
High Seas Freedom
A warship does NOT
have the right of innocent passage in internal waters
It is the most important international agreement regarding naval mines.
The Hague Convention VIII of 1907
attempted to address the questions & problems related to the use of mines in war all while establishing a compromise
Hague Convention VIII of 1907
Article 1:
Floating mines must become harmless (sterilize) within an hour of deployment.
Mines that come loose from their moorings must sterilize within an hour.
Torpedoes that miss their targets must sterilize.
Article 2
A nation cannot mine for the exclusive purpose of targeting commercial vessels.
Article 3:
Minefields may not interfere with the safe transit of neutral shipping, & minelaying nations must remove mines at the end of hostilities
US Navy provided further guidance on:
Peacetime Mining Operations
Mining during an armed conflict
Command-Control Mines
: Can be controlled to make the mine armed or safe, or fired
Within international waters, a nation may lay mines only under the most demanding self-defense requirements with the following requirements:
Notify international community of location & duration of mines.
Maintain presence to warn approaching ships.
Prompt removal of mines after the threat has passed.
Nations at war may lawfully place mines in their national waters with the following restrictions:
Must record location of minefields carefully & notify international community.
Cannot place mines in neutral waters.
Mines must become harmless or disabled.
May use mines with a strategic blockade, but not solely to intercept commercial shipping.
Must take necessary steps to protect neutral shipping.
Must remove mines when hostilities cease.
Seabed Arms Control Treaty
In 1972, the United Nations Seabed Arms Control Treaty sought international agreement on prohibiting the placement of nuclear weapons.
The US interpretation of this treaty is that this does not include non-nuclear sea mines.
Seabed Arms Control Treaty
The Seabed Arms Control Treaty prohibits
the placing of any nuclear weapon or other weapon of mass destruction on the seabed or ocean floor beyond a 12-mile coastal zone.
that Hague Convention VIII of 1907 is the most important doctrine regulating the use
of mines, primarily intended to protect neutral parties, shipping, & innocent civilians
