Migration & Remittances Effects Flashcards

Question

What are NEGATIVE effects of MIGRATION on EDUCATION in the COUNTRY OF DESTINATION (for natives/immigrants)?

Answer 1

Natives: * Poor learning outcomes, class has to slow down, can’t cover much material (i.e., not same level of language etc) * Don’t really see issues with enrolment (may see issues with school switching, public-private)  “white flight” --> trend of white families moving out of urban areas and enrolling their children in predominantly white suburban schools, thereby creating racially segregated school districts. Immigrants: * Poor attainment (language issues, poor integration, previous education)

Answer 2

INTERNATIONAL STUDENT  “An internationally mobile student is an individual who has physically crossed an international border between two countries with the objective to participate in educational activities in a destination country, where the destination country is different from his or her country of origin.” (UNESCO, 2015). Types of international student mobility * Degree mobility: Completion of an entire Bachelor/ Master programme * Credit mobility: Temporary stay abroad. E.g. exchange, semester abroad (e.g. ERASMUS programme) * Vertical mobility: Between countries with differences in the development of higher education systems. E.g. from developing to developed countries * Horizontal mobility: Between equally developed higher education institutions. E.g. between developed countries. Key TRENDS (OECD countries): * Largest flow of international students in OECD is from developing countries: o 67% of all international students in the OECD area come from developing countries. o Of this, 3% are from low-income countries (LICs), 26% are from lower middle-income countries (LMICs) and 38% are from upper middle-income countries (UMICs). o In Austria, Colombia, Greece, Indonesia, Korea, Poland and the Slovak Republic, more than 55% of internationally mobile students in 2019 came from neighbouring countries. * Most countries in OECD are net importers of students  they have more students coming into the country to study than those leaving to study abroad. * The number of international and foreign tertiary students grew on average by 5.5% per year between 1998 and 2019. * Students are more likely to travel abroad for more advanced education programmes. In all but a few countries, the share of international students enrolled in tertiary programmes increases gradually with education level (higher levels of education = higher mobility) * While most countries have higher shares of international students at doctoral level than at master’s level, a number of countries show the opposite pattern: this is particularly striking in Australia, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland. * Women: o While women outnumber men among entrants and graduates from tertiary education, they are about as likely as men to enroll abroad in the field of social sciences, journalism and information. o However, they are less likely to do so in the field of engineering, manufacturing and construction (29% of international students are women) and more likely in the fields of arts and humanities (share of women 62%) and health and welfare (63%). * Top sending: China, India, Vietnam, Germany, France

Answer 3

Domestic students * International classrooms o Improved learning outcomes o Change of perspective  innovation o Intercultural skills and understanding o Improved language skills * International networks and friendships o Get to know other cultures and traditions o Buddy programmes * Preparation for future as global citizens and international careers Higher education institutions * Financial benefits o Increase income/ additional funding opportunity, especially important where financial contributions of governments decrease * Academic benefits o Advanced quality of education due to increased competition for the most talented students and academics worldwide o Improved reputation (rankings) and visibility o Link to universities worldwide, international research collaboration * Institutions employ active internationalisation and recruitment strategies o Courses taught in English, double degrees Happy international students = ambassadors for their institutions Destination countries * Economic development o Short-term: additional revenue, e.g. through living expenses, family visiting o Long-term: retain international students and thereby expand the domestic pool of highly skilled workers (facilitated through orientation years after graduation) * Demographic considerations: meet the needs of the industry * Contribution to knowledge creation, productivity, innovation and global competitiveness * International students as ambassadors to recruit more talent * Strengthened international cooperation (e.g. trade and business, science) * Strategies to facilitate ISM (international student mobility) Origin countries * Financial and social remittances (e.g. norm, values) * If students return home after graduation, they can contribute to the development of their home countries with their newly gained knowledge (e.g. technology upgrading and capacity building) * Strengthened international cooperation (e.g. trade and business, science) * Enter global knowledge networks

Answer 4

Immigrant students * Adjustment and integration o Language barriers o Culture shock o Homesickness o Meet expectations from family and institutions o Different academic environment/ study methods o Administrative and bureaucratic challenges o Discrimination o Finding Housing * Access to the labour market o Restricted, obtaining a permit can be difficult and time consuming * Costs o Tuition fees o Administrative costs/ visa o Requirement for financial reserves  Double financial burden Higher education institutions * Language skills of students and staff * Provide services for students o Facilitate housing * Risk of squeezing out qualified national students * Risk of only being accessible for students with financial resources * Increased competition * Over-emphasis on internationalisation at the expense of other priorities Destination countries * Sensitive topics of public concern (e.g. migration, education) * Abuse of student visa system * Misuse of health care system (overuse of emergency services...) * Housing shortages Origin countries * “Brain drain”  brain circulation * Reverse culture clash * Recognition of diplomas * Financial: paid scholarship for students who do not return

Answer 5

* Top countries receiving nurses: US, UK, Germany, Australia, Canada, Italy, France, Switzerland (high-income countries). ALSO: UK before Brexit relied a lot on EU nurses, now not-EU * Top countries training most doctors: India, China, Pakistan, Germany, Romania * Top countries training most nurses: Philippines, India, Poland, UK, Nigeria, Germany

Answer 6

- Financial (monetary) remittances - Social remittances - Absence of a person (family memebr) - Selection effects of who leaves - Aspirations (the ability to migrate can create aspirations on the health side)

Answer 7

* Financial remittances o Better access to care o More expenditure on healthcare o Better inputs (food/nutrition) o Need for less risky lifestyle  Remittances and migration may have positive long-term effects on child health outcomes (i.e., child mortality rates, low birth weight) (Frank & Hummer, 2002) since migrant households have more disposable income to spend on healthcare services and/or health insurance (Amuedo-Dorantes & Pozo, 2011; Valero-Gil, 2008).  Remittances provide the left-behind with purchasing power to enter the formal healthcare system, which is often not available otherwise (Lindstrom & Munoz-Franco, 2006).  Positive effects also on non-migrant households, better access to healthcare for particularly vulnerable groups reduces the emergence and transmission of preventable diseases within the community (i.e., herd immunity, more investments in private healthcare in the origin country etc.)  Remittances are proven to be more effective in richer households than in poorer (this has to do with how remittances are spent, priority of poorer households is not health)  Remittances have been reported to be specifically used to increase health care expenditures, leading to greater access to private clinics and medicine in case of sickness, as well as improved health knowledge; very often also use of bribing (often link between migration and corruption).  Remittances can alleviate debt burden in migrant households in situations of health shocks.  The use of remittances has been more associated with emergency situations rather that preventative care  Remittances often used to pay for education, associated with greater life expectancy and lower child mortality rates  better education = better health outcomes

Answer 8

* Social remittances o Knowledge transfers increase information and induce behavioural changes in the left-behind regarding health and hygiene. o Social remittances often present effects in the knowledge of women regarding child and maternal health as well as fertility, regardless of economic effects (i.e., having regular check-ups), fertility  norms start to be remitted back (i.e. Egypt people who migrated to EU vs the Middle East, families that had people go to EU had less children) o Raising expectations of health services  “By raising expectations of health services while simultaneously encouraging and facilitating political and civic organization, social and economic remittances have the potential to result in better health programs and infrastructure” (Frank & Hummer, 2002, p. 761). o The return flows of people and ideas to migrant sending areas is also capable of reducing the rural-urban gap in health-seeking behaviour o Contribution of medical Diaspora: very often people keep ties with their county and community of origin (including doctors)

Answer 9

* Elderly  in some situations (really context-dependent) elderly mental health improved (because they feel less economic pressure, they can feel more responsible and less a burden, increase in pride for their children who managed to migrate to another country  their position in society also improves). Positive outcomes: better BMI, mobility, and self-reported health. In the case of Thailand, poor mental health outcomes (in the short-term), but still good physical health outcomes. o Some negative effects on mental health in context where there was not much communication with the migrant, not receiving remittances and migrant destination was the Gulf. Regular communication has good effect in general. * Women  worse mental health outcomes but higher egalitarian gender ideologies. Also, in some cases women can be more vulnerable to sexually transmitted infections because the migrant husband engages in unprotected sexual relationships. * Children  Most of the studies on nutrition have focused on how migration and remittances can be beneficial or detrimental to child health and development, using measures such as nutritional status, height for age, and weight for age. Nutritional outcomes mixed results. In the Mexican context positive impact both because of increased wealth and of increased awareness on health issues. In the Chinese context bad nutritional outcomes (probably because Chinese children are often taken care by their grandparents).  Still other studies argue that there is no generalizable pattern on the migration-child health relationship, and that context factors have to be taken into account and properly understood.

Answer 10

* Salmon bias: unhealthy migrants and migrants who experience deteriorating health have a greater tendency to return than healthier migrants, they then fall out of the statistics in the destination country and they look like they have better life expectancy. However, there is little research, due to lack of data tracking migrants that return and that stay.

Answer 11

Spread of infectious diseases: tuberculosis, HIV etc. * What makes migrants more susceptible? poor access to information, lack of preparation, poor wages, sexual exploitation… o Some countries do not let people in if infected with HIV (Gulf states and South-East Asia). If they find out that you have HIV you will immediately get deported. o Tuberculosis  overcrowded places, poor sanitary conditions etc. Return is a problem because infected migrant would be in close contact with their families.

Answer 12

Determinants of health Refugees and migrants are affected by the same health determinants that affect the rest of humanity. However, their migratory status can add a layer of complexity that, when combined with other determinants, makes them particularly vulnerable and affects their health. Although the categories are fluid and overlapping, WHO classifies these determinants as relating to: * Individual characteristics and behaviours – genetics, gender, personal behaviour and age; * The social and economic environments – education, health literacy, income and social status, employment and working conditions, social support networks, culture and health services; and * The physical environment – safe water and clean air; healthy workplaces; safe houses, communities and roads; and food and nutrition.

Answer 13

“Healthy migrant effect” (also could be linked to small-reporting bias). Evidence that first generation migrants perform better than native born in many health indicators, despite their generally lower socio-economic status. However, this initial health difference disappears with time spent in destination areas. * Why?  Several factors play a role: migrant self-selection, lower use of medical facilities – and hence reporting, acculturation with time of stay, conditions of stay at destination. * Example: The Hispanic Health Paradox  Latinos in the US have generally better health and lower mortality than natives, even though they have on average lower education and income Tends to disappear over time, especially with 2nd generation: * Behavioural reasons: unhealthy behaviours i.e., dietary habits, less mobility etc. * Environmental reasons: poverty, housing conditions, 3D jobs etc

Answer 14

Access to healthcare and Health seeking behaviour Migrants’ access to healthcare depends greatly on:  The country they have migrated to  The public or private healthcare provisions offered to the migrant populations  Their legal and socioeconomic status. What other factors matter for access to healthcare? * Winters et al. (2018) review the literature on healthcare access and use of undocumented migrants in Europe. They find that undocumented migrants underutilize healthcare services, with a consistent gap between entitlements and utilization. Barriers include fear, lacking awareness of entitlements and socioeconomic reasons. * In general, studies have found that migrants tend to under-utilise healthcare services. * Immigrants often use emergency services more than native populations (but large variations among different immigrant groups).

Answer 15

* New behaviour ad practices acquired in the destination country impact the health status of minority populations * Immigrants with the lowest levels of acculturation are the healthiest, but this association is stronger for men.

Answer 16

* Low-skilled labor migrants are vulnerable to risks related to their jobs and legal and socio-economic situation at destination. * There is generally a lack of data on migrants’ health and safety in the workplaces (Ujita et al., 2019). * Generally, migrant workers have worse health outcomes and are exposed to higher fatality and injury rates than native workers: Byler & Robinson (2018) for the US; Ronda Perez et al. (2012) for Europe; Preibisch & Otero (2014) for Canada. WHY? o Reasons behind this are not only health and safety at work but also poor communication, taking risks by workers themselves, and perceived work pressure.

Answer 17

Migration and Communicable Diseases * Increased international mobility and interconnectedness contributes to spread of infectious diseases Ebola outbreak, Corona… * Spread of infectious diseases have been associated with migration patterns Specific factors related to the migration experience contribute to the higher vulnerability of migrants to STIs : –Knowledge  Lack of adequate information, false beliefs and risk perceptions on HIV are identified as major factors Migrant typologies --> in general, migrant workers in 3Ds jobs, facing loneliness for long times and marginalization, migrant (or trafficked) sex workers face higher risks of infection due to occasional and unprotected sex.

Answer 18

Migration and Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) * Changes in lifestyle behaviours that accompany migration and urbanisation (acculturation) are exemplified by shifts in physical activity and dietary patterns which promote the development of obesity, diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.

Answer 19

Migration and Mental Health Mental health of migrants seems to be influenced by:  Pre-emigration stage: living conditions in the country of origin (i.e. violence, war and torture)  Migration stage: duration of the migration journey and experiences of violence.  Post-migration stage: include living conditions, legal and social frame in the country of immigration. - A literature review on the mental health of immigrants finds that immigrants generally experience more problems compared to natives in depression, anxiety, and somatic disorders, pathologies related directly to the migration process and stressful conditions that many experience in host countries (Bas Sarmiento et al., 2017) - Undocumented migrants are especially vulnerable to mental health disorders (i.e. Myhrvold & Småstuen, 2017) - Migration may also lead to improved mental well-being when in the country of destination  depending on the pre- and post- migration contexts.

Answer 20

- Labour force  Economically active population (employed and unemployed who are actively looking for a job). This excludes the economically inactive. - Unemployed person  someone who is part of the labour force but is now working, even if he/she is actively looking for work. Unemployment rate = percentage of unemployed in relation to the labour force. - Labour market segmentation  when market is divided into submarkets or segments. Depending on country to country we can have more or less segmentation. For example migrants are usually in segmented markets (they take up certain jobs, i.e. 3D jobs, informal, precarious etc.).

Answer 21

POSITIVE: * Relieve labour surpluses * The non-migrant labour force can benefit from increased wages (depending on the type of jobs they are doing) o Some studies: positive impacts on local wages (i.e. Moldova, Puerto Rico) o Other studies: positive impact on wages of younger workers, not for older o Positive only for high-medium skill workers o Not much effect on wages  if it’s mainly unemployed people who are leaving BRAIN DRAIN? No consensus in the area --> different effects (i.e., higher level of remittances, transfer of knowledge etc.)

Answer 22

REMITTANCES * Could be used a substitute for labour (especially for males, really gendered effect). On the other hand, females increased self-organized work * Other studies found no reduction in labour, only changes (switch to other kind of jobs) * Amuedo-Dorantes & Pozo (2006) for Mexico find that it depends on gender, location, and type of work of the recipient.

Answer 23

Segmented labour market theory (DUAL LABOUR MARKET THEORY – PIORE, 1979) * Primary market is characterized by stable and regulated employment relationship  workforce positively selected according to human capital, ethnicity and gender * Secondary market is characterized by substandard employment conditions, deregulation and precariousness  undocumented, low skilled immigrants fulfil a demand for flexible and docile workforce in labour intensive sectors.

Answer 24

- Research found that overall, immigrants and natives’ skills are not perfect substitutes but rather complements - Migrants often fill jobs that are not attractive to natives - More recent cohorts of immigrants are often substitutes in jobs dominanted by older cohorts of immigrants - Natives specialize in occupations demanding interactive or communication skills, while highly-educated immigrants disproportionately work in occupations requiring quantitative and analytical skills.”

Answer 25

MIGRANT WORKERS AND WAGE OUTCOMES * Immigration can lead to a decrease in wages, but most estimates are small (essentially zero) * Immigrants have generally lower wages than native population  this wage differential tends to decrease over time (as they integrate and gain more knowledge)

Answer 26

BRAIN WASTE = when a person is working below his/her skills or qualifications. Migrants more than natives are likely to take jobs below their skills and qualifications. Why? --> Several determinants: - no recognition of foreign qualifications, - language barriers, - characteristics of the countries of origin, - information asymmetry, - discrimination...

Answer 27

REFUGEES Mariel Boatlift episode as a natural experiment  period when low-skilled Cubans arrived to the U.S. (while when Castro had took over mainly highly-skilled arrived). Findings: * No impact on wages of locals * Very little negative impact on wages of lower-skilled workers Other impacts linked to REFUGEES, more in developing countries: Syrians in Turkey increased informality among low-skilled workers, but also reduction of informality among highly skilled workers.

Answer 28

ORIGIN COUNTRY * Return migrant entrepreneurship  new knowledge, often start business * Remittances/savings can stimulate entrepreneurship o Remittances can be used as capital to invest in business (much lower than is often talked about, evidence is mixed  most of remittances are just used for living, overcoming credit constraints etc.) * Network

Answer 29

DESTINATION COUNTRY * Quite a lot of immigrants entrepreneurs * In some countries, migrants often over-represented in self-employment in certain sectors. Why? o Necessity  for many immigrants it can be an alternative to unemployment but still less desired than wage jobs. o Opportunity  effective comparative advantage in certain sectors (i.e. ethnic gastronomy).

Answer 30

What is innovation? --> new idea, device, or method. Innovation is often viewed as the application of better solutions that meet new requirements, unarticulated needs, or existing market needs * Five dimensions are commonly referred to: 1. Product, 2. Process, 3. Organisational, 4. Input 5. Market innovation.

Answer 31

* Filling labour shortages: Immigration can help innovative businesses by helping domestic innovative firms in overcoming labour shortages. In particular, the immigration of skilled workers enables innovative firms to obtain access to management resources and technological competencies that may be lacking in the domestic market. * Immigration contributes to the diffusion of knowledge. Direct mechanism: inflow of skilled migrants that may increase the number of researcher workers and thereby innovation  This knowledge might be quite different to the skills and human capital employed by the native research workers and diversity of skills may be important. Indirect mechanisms: o Nature and range of networks that migrants have  how they can link countries of origin, destination or where they have lived in o One important channel of impact is indirect, through the transfer of knowledge from migrant workers to native workers in the host country. However, analysis shows this takes a long time to materialize, and the effects are not obvious. o Migrants’ skills need to complement those of the host economy, host economies need a strong native human capital set that is able to learn from migrant skills, and migrant and host skills need to be sufficiently connected. * Interesting point to note, for the most part, the discussion in the literature is about skilled immigrants and, in particular, about immigrants with skills in science, technology, engineering and mathematics.  The knowledge in these disciplines is much more readily transferrable across countries than in other occupations where there are institutional or cultural differences (not really well transferrable: law).

Answer 32

The role of diversity in the workplace for innovation * Denmark: mixed results. One study found that ethnic diversity increased the number of patent application, propensity to apply for a patent etc. another study found no evidence of link between ethnic diversity and innovation. * Ozgen et al. (2013) find that firms employing more migrants are generally less innovative, although this tendency diminishes for second generation immigrants. They also find evidence that greater national diversity has a modest impact in increasing innovation. * In general highly skilled migrants positively affect innovation in destination countries

Answer 33

Low-skilled labour migration and innovation  Mariel Boatlift (when low-skilled Cubans migrated to the US)  Harris (2015)  individual inventors in destination areas had access to a large supply of low-skilled laborers, and were able to hire them to do housework, childcare, etc. Therefore, inventors could substitute away from housework and spend more time inventing, thus leading to an overall increase in patenting.  Gender effects of increased supply of low-skilled workers  Cortés and Tessada (2011) find that increased supply of low-skilled migrants lead to an increase in employment of highly skilled women.

Answer 34

Mechanisms: - Remittances (monetary & social) - Return migration REMITTANCES * Financial remittances can be used as a source of extra-income to invest in new technologies to improve productivity (Tshikala et al., 2019 for farming) * Social remittances can contribute to change institutions in origin country (i.e., some studies show that foreign-educated returnees in democratic countries promote democratic practices in their home country) RETURN MIGRATION * Migrant returnees play an important role in facilitating knowledge transfer and promoting international partnerships and cooperation. * Migration – especially of the highly-skilled – can favour technology diffusion in developing countries through social ties and transnational networks (Rapoport, 2018) * Hence, it is very important for origin countries, to maintain ties and collaborations with their DIASPORA

Answer 35

The impact of new technologies on EMIGRATION * New technologies can facilitate migration (i.e. transportation, phones, social media) * Online communication and social media can support migration aspirations (Dekker et al., 2016) * Social media can lower the threshold for migration by: o enhancing the possibilities of maintaining strong ties with family and friends o enabling aspiring migrants to build loosely bound networks that can deliver new information o offering a rich source of insider knowledge on migration that is discrete and unofficial (Dekker & Engbersen, 2014) * Forced migration  access to information really important (but sometimes difficult to navigate, false information etc.)

Answer 36

Welfare state: A system whereby the government undertakes to protect the health and well-being of its citizens, especially those in financial or social need, by means of grants, pensions, and other benefits. More detailed definition: A concept of government in which the state or a well-established network of social institutions plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of citizens. A fundamental feature of the welfare state is social insurance. The welfare state also usually includes public provision of basic education, health services, and housing (in some cases at low cost or without charge). In these respects the welfare state is considerably more extensive in western European countries than in the United States, featuring in many cases comprehensive health coverage and provision of state-subsidized tertiary education. Antipoverty programs and the system of personal taxation may also be regarded as aspects of the welfare state (Encyclopedia Britannica. 2020).

Answer 37

FACTORS AT PLAY: 1. Migrant’s characteristics: a. Type of Migration b. Age c. Age at arrival d. Gender e. Family situation f. Skill level g. Legal status 2. Structural conditions in the host country a. Labour market structure in host country (“absorptive” capacity of the domestic labour market) b. Welfare state structure (generosity, eligibility, structure of benefits, structure of taxation system) EFFECTS: There is no comprehensive theoretical and methodological framework to analyze the fiscal effects of migration on the welfare state. Generally, the effects found are low either directions. In some cases immigrants give more to the system than what they take from the system.

Answer 38

Portability  The portability of social security benefits is the ability of workers to preserve, maintain, and transfer acquired social security rights and social security rights in the process of being acquired from one private, occupational, or public social security scheme to another.

Answer 39

Welfare state shopping?  The welfare magnet hypothesis, also referred to as welfare shopping or welfare tourism, that migrants make location choices based on the provision of welfare benefits in alternative destinations. Overall, the consensus in the literature is that the effects of welfare on migration are relatively small compared to other drivers of migration. (Kahanec & Guzi, 2022). Evidence on the welfare magnet hypothesis ONLY for Return migration * The literature is inconclusive on the matter. * There are theoretical arguments why welfare might matter for migration flows and several studies find a small positive association between welfare and migration, other studies find no such effects. * Some studies show that controlling for the endogeneity of welfare in the welfare-migration nexus reduces or eliminates the effect of welfare generosity on immigration. * On the other hand, recent quasi-experimental studies demonstrate some effects of welfare on the location choices of asylees and refugees.

Answer 40

Sweden --> refugee Keynesianism --> the increased public spending resulting from refugee intake stimulates productivity and thereby supports welfare --> depending on how much the government was already spending on welfare state

Answer 41

Corruption = the abuse of a trusted position for personal gain. SCALES OF CORRUPTION: * Petty: street-level * Grand corruption: not necessarily endemic, but higher level and higher scale (i.e., one big scandal) * Systematic: endemic, in the entire system * SECTORS Government/Public sphere o Political o Police o Judicial * Universities/education * Labour unions * Health sector METHODS * Bribery * Embezzlement, theft and fraud * Extortion and blackmail Types of corrupt gains * Abuse of discretion * Favouritism, nepotism, clientelism

Answer 42

10 Linkages between migration and corruption 1. Corruption Facilitates Illegal Migration 2. Corruption Enables Protection of Refugees 3. Corruption Impedes the Development Benefits of Migration 4. Corruption Stimulates Migration Desires 5. Corruption Promotes the Transnational Ties of Elites 6. Corruption Discourages Return Migration (long-/short-term) 7. Social Remittances Reduce Corruption 8. Migration Upends Corrupt Social Structures 9. Migration Sustains Corruption (“morality drain”) 10. Corruption Undermines Assistance to Migrants 11. Export of corruption (through migration)

Answer 43

1. Corruption Facilitates Illegal Migration * Circumventing laws and regulations is a key motivation for bribery and the field of migration is no exception. * Corrupt officials can produce false documents, turn a blind eye to human smuggling, or shield employers of illegal immigrants. We generally see i.e. border guards to tun a blind eye at illegal migrants, sometimes paid by smugglers to not control certain areas at certain times etc. * Corruption usually plays a key role in trafficking. * Corruption can stand in the way of orderly migration management. This is the most widely acknowledged connection between corruption and migration. Most typical is petty corruption, but in some countries is systemic. Example: corruption and human trafficking in Nigeria. * There is a well-established Nigerian system of human trafficking for prostitution in Europe, originating mainly in Edo State. * For Nigerian human traffickers, corruption is present throughout the stages of recruitment, transport, and exploitation abroad. Traffickers rely on bribes to keep their business running, paying off public officials to turn a blind eye, and buying genuine passports under the table to lure in victims. * Corruption is endemic in Nigeria and undermines the state and the rule of law it is meant to provide. Weak institutions offer weak protection for victims and small risks to trafficking networks. * There are financial advantages for many participants beyond the traffickers themselves, including public officials in Nigeria but also those tasked with immigration control in transit and destination locations. * Corruption both greases the wheels of the transnational trafficking industry * For smuggling  it really depends on how you see the situation (i.e., refugees)

Answer 44

2. Corruption Enables Protection of Refugees * The flip side of the previous point * People with a well-founded fear of persecution often depend on corruption in order to seek protection in another country. * European countries, for instance, actively limit the number of asylum seekers by making it as difficult as possible for prospective candidates to reach European borders and seek asylum. * Paradoxically, the most professional human smuggling services, which are often most dependent on corrupt officials, offer the safest forms of travel. This is because high-quality forgeries and well-placed collaborators can ensure travel by regular means of transportation. Example: refugee crisis 2015 People who could pay more for corruption were usually the safest coming to Europe.

Answer 45

3. Corruption Impedes the Development Benefits of Migration * Migration can alleviate poverty and facilitate development, via remittances, investments by migrants, and development initiatives by diaspora groups. * This potential is undermined by corruption when migrants’ money is tapped into by self-enriching people in trusted positions in origin societies. * If bribes are required for construction permits, licenses, planning permissions and the like, the benefits of migrant-driven investment are reduced  also for migrants who return. * If remittance receivers are targeted for extortion, the incentive to send remittances may be reduced. * Corruption can also block the reintegration of highly skilled returnees in developing countries and obstruct knowledge transfer. * This could happen, for instance, if nepotism trumps merit in hiring processes, or if corrupt practices prevent professionals from being able to put their knowledge to use. * Many highly skilled returnees are motivated by a desire to make a contribution to their country of origin. Obstacles in the form of corruption can be severely demoralizing. Evidence from current research: * Latin American remittance receivers targeted for extortion o Used public opinion survey Americas Barometer (13 countries) o Specifically police bribes o Find evidence in some but not all countries of remittance receivers being asked for bribes by policy o This extortion is thought to work through a “signaling effect,” where receiving remittances signals more wealth or more liquidity to potential extorters. * Remittances and Corruption in Africa o Used Africa Barometers data from 2008 o we specifically investigate whether international remittance receivers are more likely to pay a bribe to get a document or permit, to get water or sanitation services and/or to avoid problems with police o We find clear evidence than remittance receivers are paying more bribes

Answer 46

4. Corruption Stimulates Migration Desires Direct effect: * The desire to move abroad is often driven by a lack of faith in local opportunities. * If corruption and nepotism are perceived to undermine meritocracy, turning towards opportunities elsewhere is a plausible reaction, especially among the highly skilled. (because they have the opportunity to leave if they want to) Indirect effect: * We know that widespread corruption can hamper economic development and undermine the rule of law. The resulting poverty and insecurity can in turn stimulate the wish to leave. Example: GIZ study Study sets out to develop a theoretical framework explaining the links between corruption and (irregular) migration, which can be applied to different country contexts. It identifies how corruption impacts human security and thereby directly or indirectly leads to (irregular) migration. Two case studies: Mali and Ukraine How corruption can potentially feed on each of these security areas (see slide 29) and how this translates into desire to migrate. Really complex links. But is very clear that both directly and indirectly corruption can feed into the desire to migrate.

Answer 47

5. Corruption Promotes the Transnational Ties of Elites * In countries that struggle with high-level corruption, the few at the top who stand to benefit often develop transnational connections. The people who are already the elite in the country are able to travel abroad, create connections etc. * Earnings from corruption can make international migration possible, even from states whose passports are of little help for international travel. * Corrupt elites also have particular motives for transnational mobility, deploying their wealth out of reach, or even preparing for a quick exit if prosecution is looming. * EXAMPLE: A case in point is the so-called “naked officials” in China—powerful men who profit from corruption and have sent their families and money abroad to reduce their vulnerability.

Answer 48

6. Corruption Discourages Return Migration (long-/short-term) * Effect even stronger if migrants have adapted to the less corrupt society in the destination country, the corruption in the country of origin may be a reason for them to not return (maybe corruption was not a driver for emigration but became a factor that reduces the will to return). * Requests for bribes by officials at border controls have even been found to complicate short return visits and frustrate migrants ( reduction of social remittances). * For long term settlement, corruption can substantially complicate the process of establishing and running a business, and therefore makes economic reintegration more difficult. * If migrants have become accustomed to low-corruption societies, returning to a country where corruption is widespread can instill a sense of alienation from the homeland. * In post-conflict settings, corruption can disrupt property restitution mechanisms or reintegration assistance and thereby discourage the return of refugees. * Morality drain  someone who is unhappy with the corruption in his/her country is more incline to migrate. The people who are left in the country are those who are “more okay” with the status quo, more difficult to see positive changes in the country. Example: Corruption and its effects on Italian migration * Study conducted in Germany and the Netherlands with Italian Academics (n=14NL & 10DE) * Main findings: corruption (nepotism) not necessary a reason for migration but absolutely a reason not to return

Answer 49

7. Social Remittances Reduce Corruption * When migrants retain close ties with their countries of origin, they regularly transmit norms and values, known as social remittances, in a diffusion process from the destination society back to the origin country. * Since migrants tend to move from high- to low-corruption countries they might develop a more critical view of corrupt practices and thus contribute to the spread of such anti-corruption norms in their communities of origin. * It is also possible for migrants from high-corruption countries to bring corrupt practices with them to destination states. * Morality gain  transfer of social remittances to the countries of origin (transferring the low corruption behaviour) Example 1: Emigration, Remittances and Corruption Experience of Those Staying Behind (Ivlevs & King, 2014) * Using Gallup Balkan Monitor survey data * They find that migrant households are more likely to face bribe situations and be asked for bribes by public officials. * At the same time, having relatives abroad reduces the probability of actually paying a bribe. Example 2: Migration and its influence on perceptions of corruption: Considering the views of Chinese Students in the Netherlands towards gift-giving and guanxi (the system of social networks and influential relationships which facilitate business and other dealings) Do Chinese students’ perceptions of corruption change due to their experience in the Netherlands? * NL 8th least corrupt country while China ranks 100th * Interview with 35 Chinese students in the Netherlands (in the Netherlands for at least 10 months and had previously studies in China) * This lends support to theories on the transfer of values and norms to migration students. However, there is limited evidence supporting social remittances theory among Chinese students in the Netherlands. They felt that they had really low changes of changing the minds in China, even in their own family (maybe in the long-term possible changes).

Answer 50

8. Migration Upends Corrupt Social Structures * Migration often transforms societies of origin, not least through remittances and return migrants. * Where landowners and public officials were key power holders in the past, transnational connections can catapult other individuals and families to prominent positions. * Such changes may upset entrenched structures of patronage and nepotism, with positive consequences for the fight against corruption. * On the other hand, the inflow of migrant money might also produce new forms of corruption i.e., migrants can now use money (or remittances) to use corrupted systems) * The social changes brought about by migration represent an opportunity when it comes to transforming or eradicating entrenched corruption.

Answer 51

9. Migration Sustains Corruption (“morality drain”) * While the two previous points indicate that migration and transnationalism can reduce corruption, the opposite is also possible. * The key issue here is selectivity of migrants. * If people who emigrate from countries with widespread corruption are voting with their feet—protesting against what they find unacceptable—the result may well be a kind of “morality drain.” * That is, migration deprives society of voices that could have contributed to the fight against corruption. * However this is all in theory (that all people against corruption are able to leave). Example: * Many migrants leave Latin America searching for better economic opportunities abroad, sending remittances back to support those left behind. * Using data from the Americas Barometer, a unique household survey of 24 Latin American countries, we investigated the link between corruption (specifically extortion by the police) and an individual’s intention to migrate (Siegel & Bakker, forthcoming). * Individuals in contact with corruption and averse to corruption, separately and together, exhibited a higher likelihood to migrate.

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10. Corruption Undermines Assistance to Migrants In highly corrupt settings, migrant assistance may be challenged in a number of ways  corruption can directly undercut program effectiveness, for instance if funds are embezzled, diverted to bribes, or depleted by inflated procurement costs. (Afghanistan)  prospective beneficiaries disappointed by the assistance delivery may attribute perceived shortcomings to corruption  another mechanism sets in when anti-corruption measures become overly cumbersome, diverting resources away from their most effective uses. (IRAQ)

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11. Export of corruption * If very corrupt individuals move to other countries they can bring corruption with them (i.e., emigration from Southern Italy to USA) * Also exporting of perception of corruption  example: Balkans, migrants in Sweden: there people perceived Balkan migrants as more corrupt and sometimes asked them to do corrupted things that they wouldn’t ask to Swedish people.

Answer 54

In theory two-way relationship between migration and trade (they influence each other, effects of migration on trade and effects of trade on migration). * Neoclassical economic theory  there is a direct relationship between trade and migration  trade leads to wage convergence and hence lessens the incentive to migrate (Schmiege, 2019). * However, more recent research demonstrates that this relationship is in fact far more complex and ambiguous. CONSENSUS in the literature  migration has a positive impact on trade flows, increasing exports and imports especially in the receiving country.  However: ambiguity on how trade affects migration (sometimes negative, sometimes positive effects).

Answer 55

Is migration a COMPLEMENTS or SUBSTITUTE for trade?  Neoclassical theory: In the classical analysis, trade and migration are expected to be substitutes; the more trade creates employment opportunities and leads to improved welfare outcomes in the home country, the less are people expected to leave their home countries.  Trade and migration are also expected to be complementary: migration is likely to increase trade between home and host countries, and the influx of migrants in the labour force is expected to contribute to enhanced exports or imports.

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EFFECTS OF TRADE ON MIGRATION  Ambiguity * Short- and medium-term effects: development and economic growth initially stimulate migration. * Long-term effects: it is assumed that an increasing volume of trade flows leads to a reduction of migration in the long term by fostering sustainable development. * However, trade liberalization does not automatically lead to economic growth, only under specific conditions (Schmieg, 2019).  The huge complexity of migration makes it difficult to investigate the role of trade policies on migration  difficult to isolate trade policies from other factors influencing migration (e.g. Conflict, economic crisis, global warming, etc.).  Despite the ambiguity in the relationship between trade and migration, trade policies can have a real impact: Trade policies and trade agreements are important tools to regularize (or legalize) migration  i.e.it opens legal channels of migration (Schmieg, 2019).  Effects of trade policies on curbing migration should not be overestimated (i.e., NAFTA agreement one of the motives for the US was to reduce irregular migration from Mexico, we don’t see a lot of evidence for that. African context  relevance of selected drivers for migration  diaspora and trade seem to be the more prominent drivers

Answer 57

EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON TRADE Two main drivers: 1. Transaction cost effects: Migrants often have in-depth knowledge of their origin countries’ market, social and business networks, language and business practices. This knowledge, combined with the access they may have to their host countries’ market, can lower expenses incurred for both imports and exports. 2. Immigrant preference effects: Immigrants’ demand for products from their origin countries increases imports of these “nostalgia goods” to the host countries. In the long run, these imports can decrease if the size of the immigrant community grows large enough for local firms in the host country to produce these goods.

Answer 58

Nostalgia trade  the consumption of home-country goods by the diasporic community in countries of destination, specifically those goods that are manufactured in the country of origin. * “Nostalgia goods” help migrant communities (i.e. diaspora) to maintain a sense of identity and community while living transnational lives (Newland & Taylor, 2010).

Answer 59

the effect of trade on migration is unclear because: o Difficult to isolate trade policies from other factors influencing migration  difficult to investigate. o At the same time, trade agreements can play a role in the creation of legal migration channels. In general, the effects of trade policies on migration should not be overestimated.

Answer 60

Trade leads to wage convergence and increase in GDP, which lowers incentive to migrate (however we know that it increases the capability to migrate)

Answer 61

Other motivations than wage differences lead to trade and factor price equalisation (New Trade Theory: economies of scale, technological differences, external effects), trade can stimulate or reduce migration.

Answer 62

* Trade liberalisation increases per capita GDP, in turn relaxing financial constraints on migration; * Trade liberalisation leads to adjustment costs (wage reductions or unemployment), which motivate in particular highly qualified individuals to migrate; * Trade liberalisation and adjustment costs principally affect labour intensive sectors; therefore above all low qualified workers migrate; * Trade strengthens ties between states and facilitates migration if trade agreements for example ease personal mobility; * Positive correlation between trade and migration, other factors identified as causes of migration, for example strong demand for labour

Answer 63

Quite a lot of evidence for this Existence of a diaspora leads to: * increasing exports from the receiving country because of improved information about the country of origin (emigration networks); * increasing imports to the receiving country, driven by new consumer preferences; * more migration because of better information about the receiving country in the country of origin and interest in family reunification; * Correlation because of other factors: growth sectors (investment creates demand for labour which causes both migration and expansion of trade flows).

Answer 64

Evidence for a time element --> in the short term more migration, in the long-term reduction. Trade liberalisation initially causes adjustment costs that drive migration. In the long-term GDP increases, migration decreases (migration hump  level of GDP per capita between 8.000 and 12.000USD)

Answer 65

Sex  “The classification of a person as having female, male and/or intersex sex characteristics. While infants are usually assigned the sex of male or female at birth based on the appearance of their external anatomy alone, a person’s sex is a combination of a range of bodily sex characteristics.” (Hennebry & Williams, 2021, p. 35). Gender  “The socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for individuals based

Answer 66

Reproductive labour  “The concept of reproductive labor has been used to describe unpaid activities in the home as work, thereby conferring value and visibility on this largely invisible labor performed overwhelmingly by women.” (Mignon, 2013, p. 1213). Reproductive labor includes activities such as: * Taking care of children * Preparing meals * Keeping the house clean

Answer 67

Feminization of migration * Changing composition of migration demographics in recent decade, with increasing numbers of women migrating (Gabaccia, 2016). * In one sense, this is an accurate observation: between 1960 and 2015, the number of female migrants doubled (Donato & Gabaccia, 2016). * Within the same timeframe, however, the number of male migrants as well as the size of the world’s population doubled. * As a proportion of international migrants, the female share increased only slightly from 46.6% in 1960, to 48% in 2015 (Ibid.). In order to understand the “feminization of migration” thesis, an historical account is needed. For centuries, women have been an important part of global migration flows, starting 500 years ago, as we can see here in the gender composition of enslaved African migrants (Donate & Gabbacia, 2016).  Share of female share embarkation, women were already a very important part of this forced migration  Often not the first movers, but they were historically migrating * If the proportion of female migrants in the total international migrant population remains more or less stable over the course of centuries, what does the “feminization of migration” then mean? * The feminization of migration, thus, does not refer to a quantitative increase of women migrating, but rather a qualitatively different form of migration can be observed among women: o More women are now migrating independently in search of jobs, rather than as “family dependents” travelling with their husbands or joining them abroad through family reunification (Caritas, 2012)  sometimes referred to as “the feminization of labor migration” (Piper, 2003). o Moreover, regional differences are important, showing great regional variation in gender composition (McAuliffe & Triandafyllidou,2021).

Answer 68

International workers * Women are represented a bit less, but still present * Men are still proportionally higher than women (balance changes a bit from general international migration, men are a bit higher proportion) * Areas receiving more women  Europe, North America * Areas where proportionally women are fewer  Arab States, Southern Areas. Reasons: o rights of women in those areas; o types of jobs (gender selective demand for labour); o specific countries that see a lot of migration to the Arab States generally women have a different position there and it’s not common for women to migrate alone (gender norms)

Answer 69

Implications of feminization of migration: Gender-based violence  “Harmful acts directed at an individual based on their gender” (UNHCR, 2023). * In times of displacement and crisis, the threat of gender-based violence significantly increases for women (UNHCR, 2023; Freedman, 2016). * Why? o General vulnerabilities (i.e., aid workers exploiting women in refugee camps for access to food, increase in domestic abuse for example because aid is given to the woman in the household; camps are not very safe places for example tents don’t have a door that locks etc.) Gender-based violence does not only pertain to women, but crucially also to genders beyond the “gender binary”, including people who identify themselves as trans, queer, non-binary and other fluid gender identities  the LGBTQ+ community at large is extremely prone to these forms of violence. * Certain “categories” of migrants are especially prone to gender-based violence: 1. Female refugees and asylum seekers are prone to gender-based violence (Freedman, 2016). They are subject to violence (e.g. forced prostitution, rape, forced circumcision or sterilization, etc.) during their journey, as well as on arrival in the country of destination. 2. Female domestic migrant workers are particularly vulnerable to violence, as their migration trajectories are often irregularized (Caritas, 2012; Piper, 2003)  reasons are physical proximity and private environment. 3. LGBTQ+ migrants and refugees often face stigmatization, discrimination and violence (IOM, 2023). * Common cause: lack of legal pathways of migration forces migrants (whether labour migrants or asylum seekers) into the hands of networks of human smugglers and traffickers.

Answer 70

Case study How the Philippine state “exports” domestic workers * Nearly 10% of the Philippines’ national population is employed in almost 200 countries (Rodriguez, 2010). * Rodriguez compellingly demonstrates that the Philippine state actively prepares, mobilizes, and regulates its citizens for migrant work abroad  The Philippine government has transformed itself into a “labor brokerage state” (Rodriguez, 2010). * At the same time, the Philippine government redefines nationalism to normalize emigration to its citizens, while fostering their ties to the Philippines  remittances as a source of development. * Emigrants as “national heroes” and “agents of development”. Filipino men: mostly work on ships Filipino women: mostly domestic workers

Answer 71

Keep in mind the 3 biggest mechanisms: 1. Monetary remittances 2. Social remittances 3. Absence of a person * Migration and poverty/inequality (i.e., how men and women send remittances in different ways; usually if women are sending remittances the redistribution across the household is more equally…) * Migration and Education (i.e., more boys sent out to education…) * Migration and Labour (more demand for people to migrate for certain jobs depending on gender) * Migration and Health (men more risk for negative health outcomes i.e., 3d jobs; changes in fertility norms, access to contraception, improvement in maternal and child health etc…) * Migration and Corruption (sextortion, additional “female tax” etc.) * Migration and Trade (more macro discussions  probably more likely that men are the ones creating trade links, at least to a larger proportion) * Migration and Innovation (free up female labour to innovate more; highly skilled certain sectors men/women-dominated…) * Migration and the Welfare State (child benefits, transfers for poor etc. are more likely to go to women than men…) * Migration and Climate Change (impacts of climate change affecting migration or not migration of men and women are different) * Return can be also very gendered

Answer 72

POSITIVE EFFECTS ON WOMAN IF MAN MIGRATES Economic: * Role shifting female can become head of household with newly found financial responsibility (control of remittances if sent and/or newly found consumption choice). * Access to labor market if it was restricted previously, new skills gained from this change. Can maybe hire caretakers for children so they can enter labor market. Social effects: * Mobility * religious freedom * Domestical social independence * Political choice and awareness of political choices and ideologies (ex: democracy awareness may be spread back through social remittances from man migrating). * social relationships, can create relationships and social relationships within community. - Women can have better romantic opportunities when men leave if relationship was bad. * Possible family reunification abroad with male in destination country * Social remittances may increase awareness of migration benefits or spread new cultural knowledge back to origin countries. * Transnational networks * Women are now possibly safer than they were previously, if male who migrated was abusive. Health: * Health and privacy increases, menstruation stigma may decrease if preexisting. * Maybe mental health increases as well. Children in household: * Possibly new child raising choice (religious, political, cultural). * Closer bond with children without male in house. * possible new education opportunities for children and female head of household because they can either afford it with remittances or are not restricted by male head of household. Can increase young female education. * Possible better nutrition and health access. * May be safer if man was abusive. Return Migration: * Depending on the destination country, the man might be more socially/culturally progressive ex: not maybe used to women in workplace and promotes gender equality in the labor market. * Maybe seen as role model now * Expanded social awareness.

Answer 73

POSITIVE EFFECTS ON WOMEN IF WOMEN MIGRATE Case: woman migrates * Woman who migrates o Getting her own wage/economic empowerment. o Educational attainment can bring positive effects in the future. o Freedom for women (depending on the country where she comes from/is going). For example, their way of thinking, maternity norms, contraception methods, dressing, and performing jobs that are generally not accepted. o Opportunities of finding a job aligned to her skills (less brain waste), in case of high-skill migration. o Escaping gender-based violence situations. o Increasing opportunities for entrepreneurial activities for women. o Having access to a better welfare system that can provide her with a pension (economic freedom for the future), and maternity leaves, among others. * Community of origin o Normalization of women migration/change in gender norms. o Return migration can improve gender equality, even in highly professional environments. o Gendered aspirations and requirements to the State can improve. o Aspirations and gender norms for elderly women change. * Women who stay behind in the household o Girls (daughters that stay behind) can have improved access to education and health. o Social remittances that change gender norms for girls who stay behind. This depends on the country of destination. o In-kind remittances of menstruation/health products if there is no access in the country of origin. * Country of destination o If the women who migrate are doing domestic care work in the country of destination, this gives women the opportunity to work instead of staying at home. *This effect maximizes if the woman comes from a low-income country/ unequal country in terms of gender.

Answer 74

Negative effects on women when men migrate - Women: Increased responsibility in the households and changing roles – women having to find employment or additional employment; financial coping (when remittances are not received); negative mental health outcomes; lack of contact (Gulf countries) – mental coping; increased social remittances which increase empowerment of women to migrate, but (both resources and society constraints, policies in destination countries such as lack of family reunification options) can lead to unrealised aspirations; to migrate unaccepting societal norms to lead the household (Saudi Arabia, India, Japan) – both high-skilled migration and low-skilled migration of men, security concerns specifically in societies where men are considered as protection mechanism – risk of GBV; newly acquired social norms (in some counties considered negative norms) by men can exacerbate women or households by changing the norms - Girls: Mental coping and childhood traumas (due to changing household roles), child labour, future consequences (decreased prospects for a brighter future through decreased education), reproductive labour and taking care of younger siblings/older family members, child labour and assignment of resources to boys (when the remittances are not received or not enough) that can lead to decrease in education attainment for girls - Women and girls are not prioritised in situations when resources are minimal,

Answer 75

NEGATIVE EFFECTS ON WOMEN IF WOMEN MIGRATE The main factors that affect the decision of people to migrate are economic, political, and social. The same stands for there to discission on where to migrate (destination country). For example, in countries of destination if there are limitation to women rights, then it may not be their preferred destination. Where they go: * Women are in dangers during their arrival in the destination country. Eg. In the migrant camps, often women are being sexually attacked or victims or domestic violence. * Loss of social support: Women who migrate might experience a loss of social support from their families and communities, which can lead to feelings of isolation and loneliness. This may be exacerbated if they face language barriers or discrimination in their new country. * Family separation: Migration often leads to family separation, which can have emotional and psychological impacts on women. This may be particularly challenging for mothers who must leave their children behind or who need to adapt to new roles and responsibilities in their new homes. Where they are coming from: * Regarding the country of origin, in many cases women have less right regarding the access in labor market, even in the destination country. * Women are also facing many dangers during their journey in the destination country. Eg. Human trafficking: Women migrants, particularly those with low skills or from vulnerable backgrounds, may be at risk of falling victim to human trafficking networks. This can lead to forced labor, sexual exploitation, and other forms of abuse. Skill Level: * High Skill 1. May face gender discrimination and lack of experience in the country of destination. 2. Lack of degree recognition may lead to brain waste since they may get employed below their capabilities. 3. Language skills could also prevent the integration in the labor market. 4. Often spaces are closed, which can lead to exploitation at the workplace. * Low skill * In professions as domestic workers, women are more wearable and in danger to be exploited or be abused. * different types of abuse * fewer working opportunities * In many cases women do not have the ability or the right to enter the labor market and their social rights are limited. In those cases, women are experience isolation as they are mostly staying home. * Due to their immediate need of entering in the labor market, women are willing to accept jobs that might be not well paid. * Effects on their health.

Answer 76

POSITIVE EFFECTS ON MEN WHEN MEN MIGRATE: Economic: * wage increase possibly in destination countries. * Possible access to a better welfare system in formal employment contexts. -Access to better benefit systems if employed in formal employment. * Supporting their families through financial remittances. Reaching new cultures and places * contact with different cultures. * increased sense of self when separated from relationship/household back home or just in general. * newly found (household) skills in destination country when separated from household gender roles back home. * Allows for closer bond with sons/family back home through mother. * access to new social relationships: newly romantic opportunities if relationship was abusive or unhealthy. * Depending on destination, travel opportunities may occur and through that able to access “cultural melting pot.” Ex: migrants in the EU. Social: * Maybe man becomes more socially/culturally progressive depending on destination country. * Education access may be better in destination, ex: traineeships, integration policies. * Access to transnational networks (socially or culturally). * In specific destination countries, more political awareness and sometimes if granted citizenship, they can vote in destination. * Newly found national identity and pride can increase mental health or sense of self. * Family reunification, man serves as role model for family. * Leaning a new language if destination language differs. * Religious freedom choices possibly. * Increased social standing upon return. Health * Access to better health resources in new country or awareness of health/nutrition, etc. * Sexual health, access to awareness and resources * Mental health can improve. Safety: * Safer in new country, ex: escaping violence/prosecution, (gang issues) especially in LGBTQ situations where the destination country has more progressive policies than origin. * avoiding military recruitment. * possibly leaving abusive family dynamics from origin country * Less vulnerable in poor labor market conditions to sexual exploitation than women- comparison based, males may have the ability to be more successful in a new labor market than women would be. Male return migration * Males may have gained household skills they didn’t have before migrating, that can manifest in return migration and can trickle down to children. * Involvement in migration, possibly promote migration or facilitate it for friends and family. * social remittances can transfer to households back if they are in a more educated or progressive society in destination country. * When they return, maybe seen more positively by children as they know their parent has worked to provide more for family, increased role. * Family maybe is progressed into a perceived higher social (or financial) class with male leaving more specifically, when men are sending remittances back or gaining abroad experience - seen as more elite maybe.

Answer 77

positive effects on men when woman migrates * Country of origin o If remittances are sent, men have opportunities for entrepreneurial activities. o If remittances are sent, men can stop doing 3D-4D jobs. o Boys/sons/husbands can have improved access to education and health services. o Social remittances can affect gender norms that are detrimental to men, depending on the country of origin/destination of the woman who migrates. o Remittances can help elderly men work less or stop working since they provide them with an alternative to bad pensions/no pensions. o The burden of providing for the household is shared with the woman abroad. Therefore, the mental health and well-being of the man can be improved. o If she is the abuser and leaves, that gives men and children a safer/better environment. o Pride for the family (father) of having a daughter migrating. o Men can create stronger bonds with their children. * Country of destination o Women migrating to perform domestic work can help households, giving women in the country of destination the opportunity to work and therefore benefitting men as this reduces the burden on them. o Skilled women migrating to middle-income/less developed countries can help break group thinking and change social norms, benefiting men.

Answer 78

Negative effects on men when men migrate Origin country: - When in household (men, boys and grandparents): increased responsibility in the households and changing roles – having to find employment or additional employment, child labour; decreased health outcomes because of responsibilities (for elderly); financial coping, increased social remittances which increase empowerment of men in the general society to migrate, but (both resources and society constraints) can lead to unrealised aspirations for boys; security concerns specifically in societies where men are considered as protection mechanism – risk violence against boys and older men (outside and within households) Destination country - Low-skilled migration: 4D jobs and informal employment – lack social protection, decrease of health outcomes, mental stress; responsibility to send remittances and support those in the origin country affecting mental health; stigmatisation from the origin country; discrimination in the country of destination (in the labour market and the society) – men are seen as a higher security threat or competition in the destination counties (compared to women). - High-skilled migration: mental coping, discrimination to a lesser extent, brain waste: recognition of diplomas and transferability of skills Journey - Security concerns; more pressure on men to engage in irregular migration; forced migration context: men and boys are sent first on dangerous journeys to further facilitate the moving for the rest of the household

Answer 79

Negative effect on men if women migrate: * Men might face discrimination because of the stigmatization of them staying behind. Social norm effect. Men are called to take new roles that they are often not willing to take. Either they higher someone else to help them or the female child takes the role of the mother. * Loneliness: Lose out the social and community support from their women. * Lack of remittances, less education, les nutrition if remittances do not come back. The lack of remittances might elevate the burden that men are facing. * Sexual transmittable diseases in the cases of the return of the woman, due to sexual abuse, sex exploitation, or the exchange of different partners (that is thought a fact that is more common for men).

Answer 80

* The climate over the past century has altered globally, with some areas experiencing rapid warming. * The biological world and many physical processes have already begun to adapt to these altered climates. * All projections suggest that climatic changes will accelerate because of the physical processes of response to increased trapped energy in the atmosphere and oceans, and the impacts of those climatic changes are significant to physical and biological systems globally (Adger& Safrade Campos, 2020).

Answer 81

ENVIRONMENTAL MIGRATION  refers to “movement of persons or groups of persons who, predominantly for reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are forced to leave their places of habitual residence, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move within or outside their country of origin or habitual residence” (IOM, 2019). * Earthquakes * Cyclones * Tsunamis CLIMATE MIGRATION  is “the movement of a person or groups of persons who, predominantly for reasons of sudden or progressive change in the environment due to climate change, are obliged to leave their habitual place of residence, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, within a State or across an international border.” (IOM, 2019). * Rising sea level * Droughts * Salinization of ground water * Desertification * Air pollution * Lack of rainfall

Answer 82

ENVIRONMENTAL MIGRANTS  are defined as “persons or groups of persons who, predominantly for reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are obliged to leave their habitual homes, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move within their country or abroad” (IOM, 2014) ENVIRONMENTALLY DISPLACED PERSON  refers to “persons who are displaced within their country of habitual residence or who have crossed an international border and for whom environmental degradation, deterioration or destruction is a major cause of their displacement, although not necessarily the sole one” (IOM, 2014). CLIMATE REFUGEES OR ENVIRONMENTAL REFUGEES  There isa growing consensus among concerned agencies, including IOM and UNHCR, that the use of these terms is to be avoided. These terms are misleading and fail to recognize a number of key aspects that define population movements in the context of climate change and environmental degradation, including that environmental migration is mainly internal and (not necessarily forced), and the use of such terms could potentially undermine the international legal regime for the protection of refugees. (IOM, 2014).

Answer 83

MECHANISMS  Drought and water availability o Long-term drought leads to greater levels of outward migration from agricultural areas, but this is limited to those parts of the population that can afford to migrate (Adger & Safrade Campos, 2020). o Forced immobility (involuntary immobility)  ”trapped populations” refers to populations who do not migrate, yet are situated in areas under threat, at risk of being left behind, rendering them more vulnerable to climate change (IOM, 2019; Call et al., 2017). o Mostly felt in agriculture-dominant regions (Nawrotzkiet al., 2015).  Land inundation and habitability o Rising sea levels. o Impacts concentrated in coastal areas and small islands. o Short-term impact: increased risk of salinization of land and decreasing land productivity. o Long-term impact: decline in accretion rates in deltas (accumulation of sediment) and sustainability of coastal settlements (Adger& Safrade Campos, 2020). o Coastal lowlands and small islands across the globe are increasingly at risk of inhabitability.  Short-term impact of weather-related disasters o Increasing intensity and frequency of extreme events, such as flooding, storms, heatwaves and extreme temperatures, wildfire, cyclones, hurricanes, coastal surges, leading to displacement of populations on the short-term. o Evidence from “Hurricane Katrina” in the US in 2005 shows that acute displacement of populations also leads to long-term demographic shifts  poorer populations were less likely to return to New Orleans (Groen & Polivka, 2010)  what we expected to be short-term became long-term displacement (for poorer populations).

Answer 84

Debunking the climate migration myth * Dominant narrative in academic literature and policy reports predicts “massive flows of climate refugees”, thereby entrenching climate migration as a looming security crisis (Boas et al. 2019). * This narrative employs a heavy emphasis on negative, racialized stereotypes and highlights the alleged importance of security and border controls in the Global North. * However, supporting empirical, scientific evidence for this “securitized” narrative is lacking (Boas et al. 2019). Indeed, the greater part of climate-induced displacement happens within national borders  the “security crisis narrative” in the Global North is therefore ungrounded. * There are significant methodological limitations of climate migration statistics (Durand-Delacreet al., 2021). De HAAS: So much evidence on how environmental factors affect migration, but no evidence that this is going to lead to mass environmental migration Links are very complex You cannot simply assume that all these people are just going to move out Example of droughts / flooding --> people actually move where droughts are because soil is more fertile (maybe they move when there is a flooding but then they come back i.e., Bangladesh) Also only the ones that have material means will be able to move, the most vulnerable will stay there Using this term there is a risk to depoliticise vulnerability (giving the fault to climate change and not to politics for making these populations in a vulnerable situation)

Answer 85

Implications for policymakers Emergent arenas for policy action: * Mass displacement, both nationally and internationally. * Involuntary immobility and “planned relocation” (Call et al., 2017). o Planned relocation: “In the context of disasters or environmental degradation, including when due to the effects of climate change, [refers to] a planned process in which persons or groups of persons move or are assisted to move away from their homes or place of temporary residence, are settled in a new location, and provided with the conditions for rebuilding their lives (IOM, 2019). * International coordination and alignment of migration policies and governance (Adger & Safrade Campos, 2020).

Answer 86

Term often used to raise awareness etc. but there are some god reasons for not using the term. 1951 Geneva convention, aftermath of WWII, guiding international convention on how we define refugees legally. Refugee: someone who is unable or unwilling to return to his/her country of origin … People forced to migrate for climate reasons do not fall into this definition. They tend to move within their own countries (displacement). People tend to move for a variety of reasons, really difficult to prove that a person was forced to flee only for climate reasons. Reaction in potential host countries might be xenophobic Boas et al (2019): - Climate change can disrupt livelihoods - False narrative of many climate refugees - No scientific basis that climate migration is a security crisis By using this terminology it can be counterproductive. Also concerns that using the term can put the official definition in jeopardy, hurting the other categories of refugees. Some argue for an international convention protecting this particular category of refugees; others use it because it's catching. There are many ways of defining people that are migrating for climate reasons and people disagree about which ones are best to use in any context. Climate refugee is just one term among others (i.e., eco-refugees, climate mobilities, climate vs environment). This is a terminological issue Categorical emptiness --> solution is perhaps not to seek a consensual definition, but for stakeholders to offer their own clarity of what they mean by a given term Currently politically impossible to have a climate refugee status similar to the protection granted by the 1951 Convention - Many stakeholders that attempts to renegotiate the convention would be counterproductive - Priority to preserve and strengthen existing rights - Some stakeholder support a "hard-law-approach" --> proposition of a new ad hoc convention Most stakeholders focus on soft law

Answer 87

* Origin of the term: Greek compound diasperō o Dia: between, through, across o Speiro: sow or scatter * Initially used to describe Jewish historical experience of dispersal * First applications: historical diasporas of Jewish, Greek, & Armenian populations Diaspora indicates 3 reference points: the process of becoming dispersed, the community of people who have become dispersed, and the places or spaces in which the dispersed live  Vertovec, 2009 “Diaspora: “…an imagined connection between a post-migration (including refugee) population and a place of origin and with people of similar origins now living elsewhere in the world.” (pp. 136-7)  Marienstras, 1989: As a group based on “…a degree of national, or cultural, or linguistic awareness” of “a relationship, territorially discontinuous, with a group settled ‘elsewhere’.” (p. 120)  Other means of defining this group: Ethno-national diaspora (Sheffer, 2003) “…a socio-political formation, created as a result of either voluntary or forced migration, whose members regard themselves as of the same ethno-national origin and who permanently reside as minorities in one or several host countries.” (Sheffer, 2003; 9-10)  Oldest definitions are more about a persecuted group that is kind of scattered around the world Most definitions have three common components, differing by old and new conceptualisations of the topic: *Causes of migration or dispersal: Causes: forced v voluntary *Link of cross-border experiences of homeland with destination: Return v transnational linkages *Incorporation or integration of migrants into host society:No integration v biculturalism Diaspora and diasporic politics have changed over time due to:  Increasing international migration & diversification of migrant populations  Settlement in host countries  Acceptance of pluralism  Return, circulation, and transnationalism  Rather than dispersing or disappearing, diasporas are expanding!

Answer 88

Defining Diaspora: Common Traits? (Cohen, 2008) 1. Dispersal from original homeland, often traumatically, to two or more foreign regions 2. Alternatively or additionally, the expansions from a homeland in search of work, in pursuit of trade or to pursue colonial ambitions 3. A collective memory and myth about the homeland, including its location, history, suffering, and achievements 4. An idealisation of the real or imagined ancestral home and a collective commitment to its maintenance, restoration, safety and prosperity, even to its creation 5. The frequent development of a return movement to the homeland that gains collective approbation even if many in the group are satisfied with only a vicarious relationship or intermittent visits to the homeland. 6. A strong ethnic group consciousness sustained over a long time and based on a sense of distinctiveness, a common history, the transmission of a common cultural and relgious heritage and the belief in a common fate 7. A troubled relationship with host societies, suggesting a lack of acceptance or the possibility that another calamity might befall the group 8. A sense of empathy and co-responsibility with co-ethic members in other countries of settlement even where home has become more vestigial 9. The possibility of a distinctive creative, enriching life in host countries with a tolerance for pluralism

Answer 89

EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT: FIVE PHASES OF DIASPORA STUDIES 1. Outlined the ‘prototypical’ diaspora and set a base understanding of the term, based on the Jewish experience 2. Expansion of the concept to encompass other categories of migrants, who maintain a collective and idealized memory of their homeland. Cubans 3. Consolidation phase, in which core elements, common features and ideal types were developed 4. Social constructionist critiques questioning the two key elements of the diaspora concept, the homeland and ethnic community. 5. Mobilizing diasporas, in which diasporas are not seen as natural result of migration but as product of transnational political mobilisation

Answer 90

Migration is an inherent challenge to sovereignty: * Territorial distance weakens governance * Particularly toward dissident populations o How to recreate the citizen-sovereign bond? States engage “their” diasporas to extend governance: * Enlisting “functional elites” to mediate peace or foster trade * Containment of diaspora impact on homeland politics * Mobilisation of diaspora support for host country initiatives  States generally choose to engage their diaspora through policy as a means to extend the state’s control over territorially distant populations.  Citizenship and all of the rights and obligations that come with it are often tied to a state’s territory, and a state thus looses some measure of control over its population once it is no longer within political borders.  Diaspora policies are thus a means of recreating citizen-sovereign relationships: as a state constructs and operationalises government institutions and knowledge, they are once again able to make expatriates “governable”.

Answer 91

While motivations differ according to specific characteristics of both the state and the diaspora, Itzigsohn posits that states generally develop diaspora engagement policies to either constrain or faciliate the diaspora in participating in home country politics. Diaspora engagement policies, regardless of the form they take, generally give the state official means through which they can influence the diaspora. The desire to contain the diaspora in the perceived “interference” in home country politics may be linked to the nature of the diaspora.  Many modern diaspora can be considered conscientious or dissent-driven diaspora, expatriates who question either the legitimacy of the government in total or the current political climate within the country.  By developing diaspora engagement policies that enable to the government to directly monitor the diaspora abroad and react to their political activities, states can influence the way the diaspora shapes home country politics. Similarly, many states attempt to enlist the diaspora as informal cultural and political attaches who can champion the economic and political interests of the state abroad.  States attempt to leverage powerful expatriates as a way to “upscale” the state’s needs onto a more receptive global arena.  Engagement policies that seek to mobilise the diaspora may also try to co-opt diaspora members and organisations in spreading positivist rhetoric that favours the state.

Answer 92

To render a diaspora ‘governable’, the state must have: * Communication with the diaspora * Institutions through which power can be exercised (i.e., embassies, consulates etc.) * Transnationalised citizenship (dual citizenship or citizenship-like things such as specific status that gives you all the rights but voting) Identity & Nation-ness + Channels for expression of state power + “Re-construction” of dispersed citizens  legitimization of extended governance Disapora engagement relies on the ability of the state to activiely exert control over the diaspora, and to do this, the state needs to estblish and maintain ties with the diaspora that make their relationship clear. 1. The first step in doing this is communicating a coherent sense of “nation” with the diaspora to promote a shared sense of identity and responsibility. The state does this through the use of signs and symbols, aspects of shared history and culture that will link the diaspora not only with one another but with the state as a political entity to which their identity is bound. 2. The second step is in rooting institutions that can exercise power in that shared sense of nation. While community creates the context in which power can be exercised, institutions give the state channels through which power can be expressed. This step in building institutional capacity can involve the formation of dedicated ministries and government bodies for diaspora engagement or can be merely a matter of inserting gvoernment agent in diaspora organisations in host countries. Once the identity that rationalises power and the institutions for exercising power are established, the state can re-conscript its diaspora as transnational citizens. 3. The last step in makign the diaspora “governable” is to extend certain sets of rights, responsibilities, and obligations of the diaspora and the state to legitimise the exercise of power. What is a diaspora engagement strategy? “…an explicit and systematic policy initiative or series of policy initiatives aimed at developing and managing relationships between homelands and diasporic populations.”

Answer 93

Capacity Building Rights Extension Obligation Extraction

Answer 94

Capacity Building: Symbolic nation building - Cultural programmes - Media shaping (PR) - Constituent meetings  Idea is to reinforce or reconfigure symbols of ‘nation-ness’ via the state Institution building - Surveillance & monitoring operations - State participation in CSOs - Creation of transnational migrant institutions - Dedicated government offices  Idea is to create direct avenues through which diaspora can be influenced or governed

Answer 95

Rights Extension Political rights - Voting - Citizenship & identification - Dedicated representation - Right to stand for election - Economisation of rights = varying “thicknesses” of membership - Theoretical vs. actual rights - Selective rights extensions Civil & social rights - Labour protection - Advocacy in (semi)state services - Special service agencies for temporary returnees  Protection as core competence of sovereign state

Answer 96

Fundamental shifts in origins & expressions of conflict: * Intra- rather than inter-state conflict * Rooted in identity group conflicts  Changing conflict patterns = “New Wars”, characterized by: o Political goals o Ideologies o Forms of mobilisation o External support o Mode of warfare o War economies

Answer 97

Increasing Importance of Diaspora Greater capacity for diasporic involvement: * More conflict = More refugees = More diaspora * Speed of communication + increased mobility = Sustained social ties * Increased production of cultural & political boundaries = Worse integration outcomes * Delocalisation of conflict + transnational national communities = New identity group politics  Increased political weight of diasporas Mobility & the Construction of Virtual Communities Locality is no longer key: * “Homogeneous space of nationness” → Beyond nation-state via circulation of people * New connectedness via technology → Beyond state surveillance  Virtual communities: context producing rather than context driven  Production of virtual “locality” enables new forms of engagement

Answer 98

Four critical areas of diaspora contribution: 1. Remittances 2. Political involvement in homeland 3. Civic-oriented involvement in homeland 4. Lobbying in host country 1. Remittances & Homeland Conflict Two forms: * Individual * Collective Differing functions: * Post-conflict stage: Meeting of basic subsistence needs in absence of livelihood opportunities * Conflict stage: Financing of violence * Post-conflict stage: Community reconstruction & welfare 2. Political Involvement in Homeland Positive Potential: * Diaspora is diverse → Competing interests = More opportunities for change * Bring new strategies of engagement * Can contribute to rehabilitation of political institutions & civil administrations Negative Potential: * Support fragmentation of politics  Splintering of political bodies * Provide resources to prolong conflict Potential effects difficult to predict because of heterogeneity of diaspora 3. Civic Involvement in Homeland Diaspora are “natural allies” of civil society: * Inherent interests in civil society development * Community development is often priority * Often uniquely able to aid business development * Often most effective on regional & local level rather than national level 4. Lobbying in Host States Diasporas lobby for both particularised & collective ends: * Against governance practices in home country * For factional interests for particular home country groups * For continent-wide interests (debt cancellation, trade policies, etc.) Lobby both for political & non-political (i.e., economic, human rights, etc.) interests

Answer 99

Built on the basis of MDGs. None of them was reached. Some correspondence with SDGs (i.e., poverty and hunger; primary education; global partnership; environmental sustainability; gender equality). - The Sustainable Development Goals are a collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a "shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future". - The SDGs were set up in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly and are intended to be achieved by 2030.

Answer 100

* GOAL 4: Quality Education - Target: 4.b Expand the number of scholarships available to developing countries for enrolment in higher education in developed countries and other developing countries * Indicator: 4.b.1 Volume of official development assistance flows for scholarships by sector and type of study. * GOAL 5: Gender Equality 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation * GOAL 8: Sustainable and Inclusive Economic Growth + Decent Work * Target: 8.8Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women migrants, and those in precarious employment * Indicator: 8.8.1Frequency rates of fatal and non-fatal occupational injuries, by sex and migrant status. * 8.8.2 Level of national compliance with labour rights(freedom of association and collective bargaining) […] by sex and migrant status. * GOAL 10: Reduce Inequality Within and Among Countries * Target: 10.7 Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies. * Indicators: 10.7.1Recruitment cost borne by employee as a proportion of yearly income earned in country of destination. * 10.7.2 Number of countries that have implemented well-managed migration policies. * Target: 10.c Reduce to less than 3 per cent the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5 per cent. * Indicator 10.c.1Remittance costs as a proportion of the amount remitted. * GOAL 16: Peaceful and Inclusive Societies * Target: 16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children * Indicator: 16.2.2Number of victims of human trafficking per 100,000 population, by sex, age and form of exploitation. * GOAL 17: Partnership for the Goals * Target: 17.3 Mobilize additional financial resources for developing countries from multiple sources * Indicator: 17.3.2Volume of remittances (in United States dollars) as a proportion of total GDP. * Target: 17.18 Enhance capacity-building support to developing countries to increase significantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts * Indicator: 17.18.1Proportion of sustainable development indicators produced at the national level with full disaggregation when relevant to the target, in accordance with the Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics.