MIDTERMS Flashcards
What is often referred to as the ‘Baby of all sciences’?
PSYCHOLOGY
What were the methods used in early times in psychology?
COMMON SENSE, SPECULATION, INTROSPECTION
Early psychology relied on methods such as common sense, speculation, and introspection to understand human behavior.
Father of modern psychology and experimental psychology.
Wilhelm Wundt
5 Approaches / Viewpoints in Psychology.
Neurobiological
Behavioral
Cognitive
Psychoanalytic
Humanistic/Phenomenological
What approach in psychology focuses on the brain and nervous system?
Neurobiological
What approach in psychology focuses on the influence of environment or outside behavior?
Behavioral
What approach in psychology focuses on the ability to perform MENTAL PROCESSES, PERCEPTION (think,forget,solve problems,feel)?
Cognitive
What approach in psychology focuses on personality traits - conscious, subconscious, unconscious - id, ego, superego?
Psychoanalytic
What approach in psychology focuses on own choice or free will?
Humanistic / Phenomenological
The brain is the _____ and _______ biological frontier.
last, grandest
What is the last and grandest biological frontier?
Brain
The most COMPLEX thing we have yet discovered in our universe which contains hundreds of cells.
Brain
What is the heaviest and largest portion of the brain?
Forebrain
What is the smallest structure of the brain?
Cerebellum
What part of the brain connects two hemispheres and allows exchange of information
Corpus Collosum
Psysiological Psych is a field of psychology that CONNECTS _____ and __________ to bodily processes and to the functions and actions of the brain.
Behavior, Mental Processes
This is a field of psychology that CONNECTS BEHAVIOR and MENTAL PROCESSES to bodily processes and to the functions and actions of the brain.
Physiological/Biological Psychology
Physiological Psychology focuses on UNDERSTANDING and IDENTIFYING the _________________________ and their __________________________ and its effects on the behavior of a man.
structures of the brain, corresponding function
Other names of Physiological Psychology.
•PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCH
•BIOLOGICAL PSYCH
•BIOPSYCH
•NEUROSCIENCE
•BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE
•COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
5 Perspectives in Physiological Psychology.
1.Description of behavior
2. Evolution of behavior
3. Development (ontological) of behavior
4. Mechanisms of behavior
5. Applications of biopsychology to behavior
Description of behavior — 2 ways of describing behavior:
• acts or processes
• functional terms
DESCRIPTION of limb movements carefully photographed at different positions.
Acts or processes
DESCRIPTION of behavior - what was the limb doing when it was going through many positions; so the limb could be involved in walking, running or hopping.
Functional Terms
Perspective: A number of behaviors can be shared by a variety of animals due to common elements of their biology. And yet there are behaviors that are different across species, or even within a specie.
Navigation in fruit-eating megabatsis based on vision; in microbats, echolocation.
Evolution of behavior
Perspective: Behavior changes during development. So the duration of sleep in humans decreases with age. So does REM and Non-REM sleep.
Development of Behavior
Perspective: So what lies underneath this behavior that we study?
A variety of biological mechanisms including _______________ and _______________ mechanisms. So behaviors like walking, sleeping, making memories, and reproductive behaviors all tend to have these mechanisms for their execution.
Mechanisms of Behavior
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL, BIOCHEMICAL
Perspective: Applications. Major goal or application of of biological psychology is to _______________________________.
improve human health
An approach that analyzes any phenomenon at more basic levels of analysis.
Reductionism
Levels of analysis: from highest to lowest.
1.SOCIAL LEVEL
2. ORGAN LEVEL
3. NEURAL SYSTEMS LEVEL
4. BRAIN REGION LEVEL
5. CIRCUIT LEVEL
6. SYNAPTIC LEVEL
7. MOLECULAR LEVEL
The highest level of analysis is social level. The lowest is ________________.
Molecular level
History - Ancient Ancestors.
First brain surgery (_____________) took place around 7000 BCE during ___________________.
Trephination, Neolithic times
•Trephination by Incan Indians at Macchu Picchu.
•Psychosurgery was popular in neolithic times. (hole in skull)
History: Ancient Chinese.
In 2700 BCE, Shen Nung originated ______________ based on Yin-yang philosophy.
Acupuncture
History: Ancient Egyptians
Called the _______________________________, they were first written account of brain in 1700 BCE, based on text that was 3000 BCE old. This account describes ____ cases of brain, skull and spinal injuries.
Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus,
28 cases
History: ______________
Studied brain injured patients (_______________), and noted that brain was the seat of our joys, pleasures, sorrows etc. And our sensations and intelligence.
Hippocrates
Gladiators
History: Greek Philosophers
Plato correctly identified mind in the brain, however his student Aristotle believed that mind was in the heart, brain to him was merely a ________ to cool the blood.
Radiator
History: Greek Philosophers
Who correctly identified mind in the brain?
Plato
History: Greek Philosophers
Who believed that mind was in the heart, and brain was merely a radiator to cool the blood?
Aristotle
History: Roman Physician (Aelius Galenus)
He is a prominent Roman surgeon that agreed with Hippocrates on brain as the seat of mind.
Galen
History: Roman Physician
He carried out dissections, and found cerebrum to be ______ and cerebellum ______.
Galen
Soft, Hard
History: Roman Physician
He also discovered fluid-filled ventricles, which he thought (cerebrospinal fluid) was used to communicate.
Galen
History: Muslim Physicians
_____________________, a persian physician, criticized Galen on his theory bodily humors. He describes __ cranial nerves and __ spinal nerves in Kitab al-Hawi Fil-Tibb.
Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes)
7 cranial nerves
31 spinal nerves
History: Muslim Physicians
This physician wrote a 7 volume book on optics called ___________________.
He correctly identified light as an external source for vision and dispelled Empedocles idea of the visual ray.
Al-Haytum(Alhazen)
Kitab-al-Manazir
History: Muslim Physicians
_____________________, an Arab surgeon from Spain, described several surgical treatments for neurological disorders.
He wrote ___________________, a 30-volume encyclopedia of medical practices.
Al-Zahrawi(Abulcasis)
Kitab al-Tasrif
History: Muslim Physicians
_____________ (Avicenna) also called the ____________________ wrote Al-Qanoon fil-Tibb ‘________________________’.
In the text he talked about ____________, _______________ and _________________________.
Ibn-i-Sina
Prince of Medicine
The Canon of Medicine
perception, imagination, generation of ideas
Like Plato, he believed that mind possessed innate ideas, and proposed _____________________ interacting at the pineal gland. He also described reflex action, as a basis of understanding behavior from a neuroscientific view.
Rene Descartes
Mind-body dualism
Nerves
__________ and _______________ would show that electrical current would twitch muscles, and the brain generated electricity.
Luigi Galvani and Emil Du Bois-Raymond
Nerves
______ and __________ showed spinal roots carried messages in different directions.
Charles Bell and Francois Magendie
Specific Nerve Energies
___________ proposed that the nature of a sensation depends on sensory fibers stimulated, not on how fibers are stimulated.
His student Helmholtz measured the speed of nerve conduction.
Johannes Muller
Neuron Doctrine
_____________ believed that neurons connected in a syncitium, connecting by *blending?.
_____________ believed that neurons are separate and communicate through gaps. This came to be known as the __________________.
Camillo Golgi
Ramon y Cajal
Neuron Doctrine
Synapse
He studied reflex action in dogs. Based on his behavioral experiments he inferred about ________________________. Named the gap Cajal pointed out as a ________.
Charles Sherrington
Synaptic transmission
Synapse
Brain Regions
________________ conducted many brain ablation experiments and found that cerebellum played an important role in coordinated movements.
Pierre Flourens
Cerebellum
Skull Bumps
___________ studies skull bumps and proposed modularity of the brain. Different parts of brain performed different functions.
Franz Gall
Speech Area
He studied patient Tan after his death and found an area in the brain that was involved with speech production.
Paul Broca
Speech Comprehension
Just as Broca had shown speech production area in the brain, he identified speech comprehension area.
Carl Wernicke
Brain Areas
He divided the brain into many distinct areas or regions and delineated their role in behavioral function.
Korbinian Brodmann
Localization of Function
_____________ and ______________ were critics of localization of function in the brain.
_______________ showed that a number of behaviors like learning and memory were not localized in particular regions of the brain.
Karl Lashley, Shepherd Franz
Karl Lashley
Reward Centers
Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional responses in animals Reward centers in the brain. By James Olds.
James Olds.
Electrical Brain Simulation
Canadian Neurosurgeon _____________________ electrically stimulated human brain to localize epileptic foci.
Stimulation of specific areas of the brain evoked specific memories. He described sensory and motor cortex in the human brain.
Wilder Penfield
Brain Lateralization
____________ carried experiments to discover left and right brain hemispheric specialization.
Sperry’s student _________________ conducts research on how the brain enables mind.
Roger Sperry
Michael Gazzaniga
Biology of Memory
By __________________. Neurobiological mechanisms underlying learning and memory in primates.
_______________ specially designed to study behavioral learning and cognitive memory tasks.
Mortimer Mishkin
Brain lesions
He is promoting the study of consciousness through the use of modern tools of neurobiology. His primary collaborator in this endeavor was the late ______________.
Christopher Koch, Francis Crick
In 1791, the idea of animal spirit as the cause of nervous activity was challenged by ___________________.
He undertook a series of experiments on amputated frog legs which included the exposed ends of their severed nerves.
Luigi Galvani
Galvani had shown that when dissimilar metals make contact through a salt solution an electrical current is produced. This was, in fact, the first demonstration of the battery later formally invented by Volta in 1800. He concluded that animals ‘invisible spirit’ are electrical in nature.
Volta in 1800.
In 1820 Johann Schweigger, validated his findings when he invented the __________________ (named in honour of Galvani) which measured the strength and direction of an electrical current.
Galvanometer
The impulse being quicker in large-diameter myelinated axons –the fastest neuron can conduct action potentials at a speed of 120 meters per second, or 432 kilometers per hour.
__________ – fatty substance
•slowest in small-diameter unmyelinated axons at 35 meters per second.
Myelin
At the age of 17, _______________ went to Paris to study chemistry, and he worked for a time in the United States before returning to Sweden in 1859.
In 1866, he invented ______________.
Unfortunately, an explosion at his factory was to kill Nobel’s younger brother Emil and four other workers in 1864.
To make a safer explosive he invented ____________ in 1867.
Alfred Nobel
Nitroglycerine
Dynamite
In 1850, he extracted long motor nerves (some 50–60 mm in length) that were still attached to muscles taken from frogs’ legs and he recorded the delay between the onset of electrical stimulation and the resulting muscle twitch, and calculated the speed of the impulse to be about 90 feet per second, which translates to around 98 kilometers per hour.
Helmholtz
The brain is made up of __ billion of specialized cells called _________. It is the _______ working unit of the brain; the basic building block of the NS.
Its function is to _______ and __________ information to and from the brain.
86 billion
Neurons
basic working unit
Receive and transmit information
It contains the biochemical structures to keep the neuron alive and the nucleus with its genetic information to determine how the cell develops and functions
Cell Body
It is the many short fibers that project from the cell body. It collects messages from neighboring cells and send them on to the cell body for processing. It can receive input from 1,000 or more adjacent cells.
Dendrites
It is the single fiber that projects from the cell body. It conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands. It branches out into terminal buttons making it possible for it to pass on messages to as many 5,000 neurons or even more
Axon
5 types of neurons
Unipolar
Multipolar
Pyramidal
Bipolar
Purkinje
Neurons that are usually only found in invertebrate species, these neurons have a single axon.
Unipolar neuron
Primary components of neurons
Cell body (soma) with nucleus
Dendrites
Axon
Neurons that have a single axon and symmetrical dendrites that extend from it. This is the most common form of neuron in the central nervous system(CNS).
Multipolar neuron
Neurons have two extensions extending from the cell body. At the end of one side is the axon, and the dendrites are on the other side. These types of neurons are mostly found in the retina of the eye. But they can also be found in parts of the nervous system that help the nose and ear function.
Bipolar neuron
These neurons have one axon but several dendrites to form a pyramid type shape. These are the largest neuron cells and are mostly found in the cortex, which is the part of the brain responsible for conscious thoughts.
Pyramidal neurons
These neurons have multiple dendrites that fan out from the cell body. These neurons are inhibitory neurons, meaning they release neurotransmitters that keep other neurons from firing
Purkinje neurons
Neurons vary in size and shape. There are about 200 different types.
200 different types.
These are also called as afferent neurons and they are _______ neurons – one axon that is split into two branches.
Activated by sensory ( physical or chemical ) input from the environment.
They carry information from the sensory organs and tissues to the Central Nervous System(CNS).
Sensory neurons
Unipolar
These neurons are located in the CNS, specifically in the motor cortex and are also known as efferent neurons; carry information from the CNS to muscles, and other peripheral like the organs and glands. They are ____________ neurons. They transmit impulses from the SC to skeletal and smooth muscles and so control directly all our muscle movements.
Motor neurons,
multipolar neurons
Two types of motor neurons
•Upper motor neurons (motor cortex and brainstem)
- carry impulses from the brain to the spinal cord
•Lower motor neurons (spinal cord)
- connect to muscles, glands and organs throughout the body
There are about 500,000 neurons. The _____ are the longest in the body; it can stretch from the base of the spinal cord to the toes.
Axons
Neurons are supported by _________ ( “ glue “ ) surround the neurons and hold them in place.
• manufacture nutrient chemicals that neurons need
• absorb toxins and waste materials that would damage or kill neuron
• outnumber neurons: 10:1
• guide developing neurons to their destinations
• provide myelin sheaths around axons.
• also play a role in responding to nerve activity
• modulating communication between nerve cells.
• most brain tumors are caused by mutations in glia.
Glial Cells
Glue
7 Types of Glial Cells
astrocytes
satellite
microglia
ependymal
oligodendrocytes
schwann cell
radial cel
This glial cell make contact with both capillaries and neurons in the CNS. It provides nutrients and other substances to neurons, regulate the concentrations of ions and chemicals in the extracellular fluid and provide structural support for synapses.
Astrocytes
This glia cell scavenge and degrade dead cells, protecting the brain from invading microorganisms.
Microglia
This glia cell form the blood-brain barrier: a structure that blocks entrance of toxic substances into the brain. It transmits calcium waves between astrocytes and modulate the activity of surrounding synapses.
Astrocytes
This glia cell form myelin sheaths around axons in the Central Nervous System.
Oligodendrocytes
One axon can be myelinated by several oligodendrocytes; one oligodendrocyte can provide myelin for multiple neurons.
This glia cell line fluid-filled ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. They are involved in the production of cerebrospinal fluid (serves as a cushion for the brain), moves the fluid between the spinal cord and the brain and is a component for the choroid plexus.
Ependymal cell
This glia serve as bridges for developing neurons as they migrate to their end destinations.
Radial glia
This glia cell provide nutrients and structural support for neurons in the Peripheral Nervous System.
Satellite Cell
This glial cell provides myelin for only one axon as the entire cell surrounds the axon.
Schwann Cell
The process by which new neurons are formed in the brain.
Neurogenesis
The ability of the brain to change and adapt to new information.
Neuroplasticity
Also called as “rewiring of the brain”.
Neuroplasticity
Neurons do two important things.
Generate electricity, release chemicals
At rest, the neuron has an electrical ____________________ due to the distribution of positively and negatively charged chemical ions inside and outside the neuron.
resting potential
When stimulated, a flow of ions in and out through the cell membrane reverses the electrical charge of the resting potential, producing an ______________, or ______________.
Action potential, nerve impulse
When stimulated, a flow of ions in and out through the cell membrane reverses the electrical charge of the resting potential, producing an ______________, or ______________.
Action potential, nerve impulse
The concentration of Na+ ions is 10X higher outside the neuron than inside
•When a neuron is stimulated sufficiently…
– The sodium channels open up allowing the Na+ inside the cell, creating a state of __________________.
– The inside becomes positive (+40 mV) in relation to the outside, producing the action potential or nerve impulse, which lasts for a millisecond (1/1,000 of a second).
Depolarization
This principle states that action potentials occur at a uniform and maximum intensity, or they do not occur at all.
All or None Principle
After an impulse pass along a point along the axon, there is a recovery period called the __________.
Refractory period.
A tiny gap between the axon terminal and the next neuron
Synaptic Space
Chemical substances that carry messages across the synaptic space to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Neurotransmitters
These are chambers within the axon terminals.
Synaptic Vesicles
These are large protein molecules embedded in the receiving neuron’s cell membrane.
Receptor Sites
The axon terminals of presynaptic neuron receive an electrical impulse called an action potential, and in response, they secrete a __________________.
Action potential = electrical impulse = nerve impulse
Neurotransmitter
This chemical (neurotransmitter) diffuses into and across the synapse and binds to specialized sites on the postsynaptic neuron called ________.
Receptors
When a transmitter molecule binds to a receptor site, a chemical reaction occurs. This has two different effects on the receiving neuron. These two are :
Excitatory Neurotransmitter and Inhibitory Neurotransmitter
This is when the transmitter molecules are taken back into the presynaptic axon terminals.
Reuptake
This neurotransmitter is involved in muscle activity and memory.
Underproduction of this weakens or deactivates neural circuitry that stores memories resulting in profound memory impairments diagnosed as Alzheimer’s disease, a degenerative brain disorder. This also acts as an excitatory transmitter where neurons activate muscle cells accounting for the severe motor impairments in the later stages of disease.
Acetylcholine
This has a more widespread and generalized influence on synaptic transmission.
It Circulates through the brain and increase or decrease the sensitivity of thousands of neurons to their specific transmitter.
_________, it’s best known and the happy hormone, inhibits pain and enhances pleasurable feelings.
Endorphins
This transmitter is both inhibitory or excitatory: mood, sleep, eating, and arousal. Transmitter underlying pleasure and pain.
Serotonin
This is excitatory; voluntary movement, emotional arousal, learning, memory, and experiencing pleasure and pain.
Dopamine
Inhibits transmission of pain impulses.
Endorphin
Love, attachment
Oxytocin
ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH) effect
Memory loss in Alzheimer’s disease (undersupply); paralysis (absence);
violent muscle contractions and and convulsions (over supply)
NOREPINEPHRINE effect
Excitatory and inhibitory; involved in neural circuits controlling learning, memory, and wakefulness, and eating Depression (undersupply); stress and panic disorders (overactivity)
GABA (GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID) effect
Destruction of GABA-producing neurons in Huntington’s disease produces tremors and loss of motor control, as well as personality changes.
ENDORPHIN
Insensitivity to pain (oversupply); pain hypersensitivity, immune problems (undersupply)
SEROTONIN
Depression; sleeping and eating disorders (undersupply); obsessive – compulsive disorder (overactivity).
DOPAMINE
Parkinson’s disease and depression (undersupply); schizophrenia (overactivity).
Non-invasive and useful in identifying and locating abnormalities in the structure or shape of the brain.
•Takes about 15 minutes.
•Laser beams.
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)
Computer-assisted x-ray of brain. Used to create overall images of brain.
CT SCAN ( COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY)
Computer-assisted x-ray of brain. Used to create overall images of brain.
CT SCAN ( COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY)
Produces detailed pictures if soft tissue in brain and can focus on specific regions when CT cannot produce clear images.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Image created by the rate at which radioactive glucose is metabolized. Which areas of the brain are active during a particular activity.
PET ( POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY)
This combines structural and functional techniques. Multiple images of brain created during a particular task. Records changes in blood flow to indicate regions of greater activity.
Functional MRI
This combines structural and functional techniques. Multiple images of brain created during a particular task. Records changes in blood flow to indicate regions of greater activity.
Functional MRI
ADVANTAGES OF PET
Show precise location of the active are/ metabolic activities. Supplements the MRI and CT scans.
DISADVANTAGES OF PET
Very expensive. Facilities available only in large medical centers.
SINGLE PROTON EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (SPECT)
Works like PET
Less accurate
Less expensive
Less sophisticated equipment
Used more often than PET scans.
Interpretation of Dreams by…
Sigmund Freud
Stages of Sleep
Falling Asleep
Likely to be asleep
Fast Asleep
REM Sleep - dreaming
A process of releasing and thereby providing relief from strong, repressed emotions.
Catharsis
A process of releasing and thereby providing relief from strong, repressed emotions.
Catharsis
The likely course of a disease or treatment.
Prognosis
3 major senses
Seeing, Smell, Touch
Brain is how heavy
3.4 pounds
