Midterms Flashcards
a large controlled vocabulary (or metadata system) for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences.
MeSH
Medical Subject Headings
It is used by the MEDLINE/PubMed article database and by NLM’s catalog of book holdings.
Medical Subject Headings
MeSH Search Tags
● ___ to search a MeSH heading
● ___ to search a MeSH heading that is a major topic of an article
s
● [mh] to search a MeSH heading
● [majr] to search a MeSH heading that is a major topic of an article
MeSH terms have ‘automatic explosions’, meaning ??
MeSH terms have ‘automatic explosions’, meaning PubMed automatically searches the MeSH headings as well as the more specific terms beneath that heading in the MeSH hierarchy. This is known as the explosion feature
Would usually be indicated as “research” on the header of the article but this is not always the case as it depends on the journal
Characteristics of a Research Article
__ can search and include everything under the tree, whereas, no explosion features focuses on one topic
Explosions
Study design are usually indicated in the title but this is not
always the case as it depends on the author/s
Characteristics of a Research Article
The abstract is an important component for research articles as well as other types of literature. The presence of an abstract might indicate that this type of literature is a research article
● May be structured or unstructured
Characteristics of a Research Article
Other Characteristics of a Research Article
● Usually follows the IMRaD format
What is IMRaD format?
○ Introduction or Background - shows what has been done before
○ Methods - includes subheadings, participants, and sample size
○ Results
○ Discussion
This format is not rigid. Subheadings may exist within the article, as well as other headings such as ethical considerations, conclusions
IMRaD format
Types of Research
According to Purpose
According to Depth of Scope
According to Type of Data Used
According to Degree of Variable Manipulation
According to Time Duration
According to Sources of Information
Research According to Sources of Information
Primary Research
Secondary Research
The data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information
Primary Research
Developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher
Secondary Research
Formulating new general concepts, establishes new theories
■ Example: philosophical Dissertations
Theoretical Research
Addresses a specific research problem and
draws on theory to generate scientific knowledge
Applied Research
For subjects not well understood or researched
■ Relies less on theory and more on data collection
■ What’s inside the black hole?
Exploratory Research
Defines the characteristics of a particular phenomenon
Descriptive Research
Similar to descriptive research, but establishes cause-and-effect relationships
Explanatory research
Identifies the relationship between two or more variables
Correlational Research
Has a linguistic-semiotic basis for discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records, and participant observation
Qualitative Research
Variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable
Experimental Research
Uses a mathematical, statistical, and computer aided tools to measure phenomena
Quantitative Research
Uses a combination of quantitative and qualitative data, usually presented through a joint display analysis
Mixed Methods Research
An observational study
■ It focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context
Non-experimental Research
Controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation
■ This is to ensure the collected data is relevant
■ The sample is not randomized
Quasi-experimental Research
Monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time
Longitudinal Study or Diachronic Research
Observe phenomena, and individual or a group of research subject at a given time
Cross-sectional Study or Synchronous Research
Which is false
● Qualitative Research - investigations which use sensory methods such as listening or observing to gather and organize data into patterns or themes
● Quantitative Research - investigation in which numbers are used to measure variables such as characteristics, concepts, or things
● Mixed Methods - investigations which use a mix of both.
These are often employed for research questions requiring complex answer like Pain
All are correct
It is a primary research
Collects and describes an individual patient or groups of
patients, project, or event
● It is descriptive and not experimental. It documents the unique or atypical. It poses further questions for further research
Case Study
The important factor is that subjects are measured once
and at the same point in the disease, injury, or
rehabilitation process. Care must be taken in the design of
the research that within a longer data collection period
important and relevant changes have not occurred that
would seriously affect the outcome of the event
Cross-Sectional Study
T or F
Case studies are considered a very high level of evidence because they are only based on one or a few patients and are not based on a rigorous methodology
FALSE
Case studies are considered a very low level of evidence
because they are only based on one or a few patients and
are not based on a rigorous methodology
It is a primary research
● It may pertain to studies with which data was collected at
one point in time or data collection was taken at different
times per participant, but emphasis was given on taking it
only once
Cross-Sectional Study
It is a primary research
● Research has been conducted after an outcome of
interest has occurred
Case-Control Study
It can be done as long as one year and as short as one day, make sure that the subjects are measured only once at the same point of the case
● Example: When a new medication is introduced
Cross-Sectional Study
T or F
“Cohort” means a group of people
TRUE
It is a primary research
● Research on the timing of an outcome. These kinds of studies define possible causal factors for a particular outcome and effect
Cohort Study
It can either be “prospective” or “retrospective”
● All ___ have forward directionality, but because
in retrospective studies the exposure status is known before the outcome
● Can answer clinical questions relating to prognosis and/or harm or prevention
Cohort Study
It is primary research. It can answer clinical questions relating to intervention
● It is considered the “gold standard” for research designs relating to intervention studies. It is used to evaluate the efficacy of an intervention
● An RCT has several characteristic features. If one is lost, it means that it is a Quasi experimental
Randomized Controlled Trials
The significance of the results is determined statistically according to a predetermined algorithm
● An RCT typically involves comparison of two or more intervention
● Example: Drug A vs. Drug B
Randomized Controlled Trials
Define: (in the context of RCT)
○ Manipulation
○ Controlled
○ Manipulation - independent variable is active
○ Controlled - used to establish the null effect
Define: (in the context of RCT)
○ Randomized
○ Blinded
○ Randomized - promotes group equality at baseline
○ Blinded - minimizes the Hawthorne effect, a type reactivity in which individuals modify their behavior
It is a secondary research
● It is a “study of studies”. This research is developed using a documented, systematic approach that minimizes bias
Systematic Reviews
It pools data from various studies, usually intervention studies or clinical trials and descriptively analyzes the data to create an even broader conclusion
● Developed because of the strength in numbers principle
○ While the population increases, the conclusion strengthens
Systematic Reviews
a bibliographic database that has been designed
to support the practice of evidence-based physiotherapy
PEDro
It gives rapid access to the best research evaluating the
effects of physiotherapy interventions - randomized RCTs,
SRs, and evidence-based CPGs
PEDro
T or F
A unique feature of Pub Med is that trials are independently
assessed for quality using the Pubmedscale. These quality
ratings are used to quickly guide users to trials that are
more likely to be valid and to contain sufficient information
to guide practice
FALSE
A unique feature of PEDro is that trials are independently
assessed for quality using the PEDro scale.
These quality ratings are used to quickly guide users to trials that are more likely to be valid and to contain sufficient information to guide practice
PEDro scale.
● Prey on unsuspecting researches
● May daya, doctor ang results
● Prominent on drug researches
● PEDro scale looks into these biases, the higher the score,
the better its results
Predatory Journals
- Go to the website Pedro.org.au
- Click the orange bottom or the search at the top, to be directed to advanced researching
- Type on the abstract and title - example, osteoarthritis
- Drag down on the toggle, to specify what you are searching for. Don’t choose anything if you want to scope everything
- All studies searched are the most relevant to your searches with the highest score
Steps in searching Pedro
What PEDro score/level is :
If we find two or more randomized controlled trials RCT of high quality (PEDro = 6) or a meta-analysis that finds exercise to be effective or not effective in relieving pain for patients with osteoarthritis
Level 1a - Strong
What PEDro score/level is :
A consensus by an expert panel or a group of professionals in the field or a number of pre-post studies all with similar that show exercise to be effective or not effective in relieving pain for patients with osteoarthritis
Level 3 - Consensus
What PEDro score/level is :
If we find one randomized controlled trial RCT of high quality (PEDro = 6) that finds exercise to be effective or not effective in relieving pain for patients with osteoarthritis
Level 1b - Moderate
What PEDro score/level is :
One or more fair quality RCTs (PEDro = 4 to 5) that found to be effective or not effective in relieving pain for patients with osteoarthritis = 2a, while lower quality studies such as poor quality RCTs, non-randomized trials and strong single subject designs
○ For example those with multiple baseline = 2b
Level 2a and 2b - Limited
What PEDro score/level is :
No well-designed experimental studies for the intervention
Level 5 - No Evidence
What PEDro score/level is :
A level of evidence of 4 indicated conflicting finding of equally well-designed studies, for example one high quality study finding exercise to be effective for relieving pain, the other high-quality study finding it not effective
Level 4 - Conflicting
A string of numbers, letters, and symbols used to uniquely
identify an article or document, and to provide it with a
permanent web address URL
Digital Object Identifier or DOI
T or F
DOLE will help reader, researchers, and EBP consumers to locate an article
FASLE
DOI will help reader, researchers, and EBP consumers to
locate an article
T or F
The DOI of an article will never change
TRUE
● You can also use____ to search for articles if the DOI is not displayed in the article
● You can also use Crossref (crossref.org) to search for articles if the DOI is not displayed in the article
Conditions that need to be met for the article to be considered relevant
○ Take note that in setting conditions, it must be readily available in the title and/or abstract
Inclusion Criteria
T or F
In most scholarly journal articles, the DOI will not be printed with the article itself, usually on the first page somewhere below the title or in the header or footer
FALSE
In most scholarly journal articles, the DOI will not be printed with the article itself, usually on the first page somewhere below the title or in the header or footer
Pre-defined conditions that determine which journal articles will be relevant or irrelevant to you during searching
Setting an Eligibility Criteria
Conditions that render the article irrelevant to your
research
Exclusion Criteria
Tidal number of articles from the full search
Yields
Number of article relevant upon title screening
Hits
Total number of articles relevant upon abstract and/or
full-text screening
Obtained
Number of articles accessed with full text
Retrieved
Describe
Population ?
Sample ?
● Population - all the members of the groups where we want to draw a conclusion from
● Sample - a portion, or part, of the population selected for
analysis
- a characteristic of objects, people, or events that does not vary. For example, the boiling point of water
Constant
Also names, but in ordered
○ A subjective measurement
○ Faculty rank
○ Hotel ratings, 1 out of 5
○ The distance are not meaningful
Ordinal
a variable characteristic of objects, people, or events. It can take on many values. For example, the eye color
Variable
Named and weakest
○ Biological sex, male or female
○ Do you own a car? Yes or No?
○ What type of insurance do you own?
Nominal
The distance can be meaningful
○ Temperature - 99 and 100 from 98 to 99 distance is
the same
Interval
Has an absolute 0
○ Weight, height, salary
Ratio
Process of selecting n sample size in the population via random numbers through a lottery
Simple Random Sampling
Process of selecting a kth element in the
population until a desired number of subjects has
been attained
■ Having a 100 population and selecting a random
number
Process of selecting a kth element in the
population until a desired number of subjects has
been attained
■ Having a 100 population and selecting a random
number
A process of subdividing a population into
subgroups or strata and drawing members at
random
■ Could be from different levels or grade in school
Stratified Random Sampling
Process of selecting clusters from a population
that is too large and/or spread across a wide
geographical area
Cluster Sampling
Process of selecting participants based on the
judgment of the researcher which, based on prior
information, will provide data that they need
■ The researcher doing a criteria, and participants
are individually assessed
Purposive Sampling or Judgment Sampling
Process of selecting participants who are
conveniently available for study
■ Non random since we use convenience sampling
■ Can introduce bias
Convenience Sampling
Process of selecting participants based on units
or strata or groups fulfilling certain prescribed
criteria and collecting based on an assigned
number
Quota Sampling
Technique in which one or more members of the
population are used to lead researchers to other
members of the population
Snowball Sampling
the person who determined if a subject for inclusion in the trial was unaware, when this decision was made, of which group the subject would be allocated to. This aims to reduce
selection bias
Concealed allocation
if allocation is not concealed, what could happen?
Potentially, if allocation is not concealed, the decision
about whether or not to include a person in a trial could be
influenced by knowledge of whether the subject was to
receive treatment or not. This could produce
non-randomized in an otherwise randomly allocated study
Allocation Concealment methods
SNOSE - Sequentially numbered, Opaque, Sealed envelope (Snoig and Simpson, 2005)
● Central Randomization - holder of the allocation schedule was “off-site”, you do not know the researcher or the allocation is done on other place
A procedure in which one or more parties in a trial are kept
unaware of treatment arm allocation of participants
● Blinding is an important aspect of any trial done in order to
avoid unintentional bias during the execution of a trial
Blinding or Masking
Involve ensuring that assessors were unable to
discriminate whether individual subjects had or had
not received the treatment
○ Reduces the apparent effect or lack of effect of
treatment was due to the assessors’ biases impinging
on their measures of outcomes
Assessor Blinding
Involves ensuring that subjects were unable to discriminate whether they had or had received the treatment
○ Reduces
■ Placebo effect
■ Hawthorne effect - ginagalingan nila
Subject Blinding
Involves ensuring that therapists were unable to discriminate whether individual subjects had or had not received the treatment
○ Reduces the apparent effect or lack of effect of treatment was due to the therapists’ enthusiasm or lack of enthusiasm for the treatment or control conditions
Therapist Blinding
A function that shows the possible values for a variable
and how often they occur
Distribution
● A function that
Measure of sameness
Measures of Central Tendency
Describe variance and range
Range - describes the width of the variation
Variance - the mean of the sum of the squared deviations.
This is used to prevent getting a zero when obtaining the difference from the mean
Describe mean ,median , mode
Mode - most frequent occurring number in a data set
Median - exact middle of data
Mean - average of a data set
square root of the variance, provides a more accurate depiction of “differentness” because this descriptive statistic is on the same base as the original data set
Standard Deviation
also called midspread or middle fifty, is equal to the difference between the first and third
quartiles
Interquartile Range
cut off points within a range of data. The 2nd
quartile is always the median
Quartiles
The probability that a random chance generated the data,
or something that is equal or rarer
● It is the probability that the pattern of data in the sample
could be reproduced by random data
Inferential Statistics - P-value
Tests for comparison between two or more categorical
variables
○ Example: is there a relationship between sex and
major? More males pursue Physical Therapy
Test for Independence
Also called Chi-square goodness of fit test
○ Compares categorical variables in your sample to a
known or hypothesized value
○ Example: Comparing sex and major at the university
vs. the sex and major contribution nationwide
Test for Homogeneity
Tests for comparison between two categorical variables
and/or numerical variable (the IV may be categorical, but
the DV should always be numerical)
Student’s T-Test
The process of carefully and systematically examining
research evidence to judge its trustworthiness, its value,
and relevance in a particular context
Critical Appraisal
Three Dimension of Critical Appraisal
Validity or Credibility
○ Can I trust the finding or conclusion of this research
report?
● Impact
○ Are the findings or conclusions important?
● Applicability or Usefulness
○ Can I use these findings or conclusions?
Used for systematic reviews to be indexed in DARE. Each
question is answered with a yes or no. Should satisfy 4 out
of 5 criteria to be included
DARE Criteria
RAMMbo Checklist
Recruitment, Allocation, Maintenance, Measurements,
blinding, objective
Used to estimate results from a number of scientific
studies addressing the same question, along with the
overall results
● Used in meta-analysis studies
Forest Plots
A histogram is the most commonly used graph to show
frequency distributions
● It looks very much like a bar graph, but there is a
difference
Histograms
