Midterm1

Question 1

What are the two types of norms that William Sumner describes, their features? Give an example of each?

Answer 1

1) Mores are norms that carry great importance in our lives. They are both strictly and observed, with there being strict social sanctions if they are broken. They are also often reinforced with formal laws. An example would be not committing incest
2) Folkways are the customs and social norms of everyday life, they carry lesser social sanctions. An example would be saying “please” and “thank you”.

Question 2

What was Garfinkel’s contribution to sociology, and how was it reliant to deviance?

Answer 2

Garfinkel’s Ethnomethodological approach studied the methods and norms used to produce social order. He conducted Breaching experiments that would examine peoples reactions to the deviant violation of social norms.

Question 3

Goffman offered a “Dramaturgical Analysis” in his sociological theorisation of how individuals present themselves in everyday life. What does this mean? Give examples.

Answer 3

Goffman described human interactions in terms of a theatre show. Through ‘impression management’ we aim to present ourselves in favourable ways.
For example, we ‘act’ through our gestures, postures and expressions, which in turn is affected by our ‘background decorations’- the settings we are in.

Question 4

Goffman describes a number of locations and methods we present ourselves in. Elaborate

Answer 4

We act differently in ‘front stage’ interactions than we do in ‘back stage’, this is because in the former case our actions are visible to an ‘audience’ and act as part of the performance of our own identity. Backstage behaviours are less performative but still maintain a performative function; individuals have no other audience bar themselves for such behaviours.

Question 5

There have been a number of historical approaches that attempt to explain the cause of deviance, what are they?

Answer 5

1) Theological (demonological) approaches
2) Classical Approaches
3) Biological Approaches
4) Psychological Approaches
5) Sociological Approaches

Question 6

Around the 18th century, Classical approaches would start to supersede theological approaches. How did this change how deviant behaviour were perceived, as well as how they were punished. Discuss scholars in your answer.

Answer 6

Enlightenment era Classical thought moved away from the belief that people commit Deviant behaviours because they are possessed. The idea of criminal responsibility became more prevenlant as people were regarded as rational and fully in control and respnsible for their own behaviours (Beccaria, 1764). Sanctions thus no longer simply physical attempts to exorcise demons out of the perpetrator but where “swift, certain and severe” (Bentham) as to deter people from committing such acts.

Question 7

Aspects of Classical approaches remain within “neo-classical” theory. Give an example of one such approach.

Answer 7

Routine Activity Theory (Cohen and Felson, 1979) is type of rational choice theory that claims that deviants reason their choices to commit crime, based on a motivated offender, an attractive target, and the absence of capable guardianship.

Question 8

How do both theological and Classical theories of deviancy differ from the approaches that would supersede them?

Answer 8

Later theories would begin to move away from fatalistic/ Totalistic claims of their predecessors.

Question 9

Give an example of Early biological positivist approaches to crime and explain it.

Answer 9

Phrenology, popularised by Frantz Joseph Gall, was a Criminal anthropological approach that argued that skull shape and size was an effective indicator of criminality.

Question 10

In Lombroso’s (1876) ‘The Born Criminal’, he concludes that the inmates in Italian prisons display atavistic traits, which can be used to explain their criminal behaviour. What, how and why?

Answer 10

Atavisms refer to physiological traits which resemble earlier stages in human evolution, such as lower foreheads, thicker lips etc. He believed that earlier humans had a ‘less evolved morality’, individuals with apparent genetic throwbacks to less evolved traits would as such be more prone to express such deviant, primitive behaviour.

Question 11

William Sheldon’s constitutional theories proposed that particular body types were predisposed to particular behaviours. What were the body types he described, their personality types and which one was more likely to commit acts of deviancy?

Answer 11

Endomorph – overweight with a large stomach. Tolerant and likes people.

Mesomorph – Athletic and muscular. Aggressive, competitive, fearless, and risk-taking.

Ectomorph – Thin and fragile. Long, slender, and delicate. Artistic and introverted.

Balanced type – average build, without any special traits

Sheldon believed that due to their body/personality types, mesomorphs were more likely to commit criminal acts.

Question 12

There are 3 major explanations in modern biological theories of crime, what are they and give examples

Answer 12

1) Chemical Imbalance and Crime

Hypoglycemia – low blood sugar. e.g “Dan White, Harvey Milk and the Twinkie Defence”

2) Genetics and Crime
Criminal family trees
XYY Chromosome (The “Supermale Syndrome”)
Twin and Adoption Studies

3) Sociobiology (evolutionary psychology)
The Cinderella Hypothesis (Daly and Wilson)
Why Men Rape (Thornhill and Palmer)

Question 13

What do Thornhill and Palmer find and conclude about ‘Why men rape’, and how does it differ from other sociological perspectives?

Answer 13

1) Most rape victims are young women
2) Most rape victims are not murdered after the act
3) Young women suffer more as a result of rape
4) Married women suffer more

Contrary to feminist thought, rape is not about power relations but instead about sexual desire. Rape is a natural evolutionary strategy that developed to enable less desirable men, such as those with lower status, to spread their genes when other more legitimate means are otherwise unenviable.

Question 14

Thornhill and Palmer’s research and conclusions has been met with heavy criticism. Why and what is challenged?

Answer 14

1) Their account distorts feminist theory by claiming that it focus solely on power relations. While there is much emphasis on power relations in social explanatory models of rape, feminist theory does not dismiss sexual desire as a causal explanation.
2) Their data largely focuses on the victims and thus is unable to provide any actual evidence for genetic/psychological mechanism)
3) The studies were conducted by analysing non-human extrapolation from lower species rather than through analysing humans themselves. Not only does this make the findings themselves questionable, but it also greatly reduces the validity of claims that rape is universal.
4) Alternative explanations for the “findings”
5) While they claim that young women and married women suffer more trauma from rape due to it hindering there reproductive value, there findings intentional misrepresent their data. Over 44 year old’s experienced equal trauma to their younger counterparts but this was hidden through combining the category with under 12’s.
6) Dubious political recommendations act to blame the victim, claiming rape could be reduced if they dressed more modestly. Moreover, they are that men should be taught that rape is natural (but that they need to control their desires).

Question 15

What is the Freudian structural model of Personality?

Answer 15

The Id – Basic Drives and needs (the Pleasure Principle)
The Ego – Restraining the demands of the Id and postponing gratification (the reality principle)
The Super-Ego – The internalization of societal values (consciences and morality)

Question 16

What are the basic principles of the Freudian psycho-sexual theory of development?

Answer 16

People are largely driven by sexual drives

Erogenous zones – body parts that produce sexual pleasures

Fixation – getting stuck in one of the stages or moving on without solving the conflicts associated with the stage

The first years of life are crucial

Question 17

What are the 5 stages within the Freudian psycho-sexual theory of development?

Answer 17

1) The Oral Stage (1-1.5)
2) The Anal Stage (2-3)
3) The Phallic Stage (4-6)
4) The Latency Stage (6-12)
5) The Genital Stage (12- )

Question 18

What conflicts can occur without proper resolution of the Phallic stage?

Answer 18

The Oedipus Complex (castration anxiety)

The Electra Complex (penis envy)

Phallic Character

Question 19

What are the critiques of Freudian theory?

Answer 19

1) Most of the assumptions are speculative and non-scientific (not falsifiable)
2) The theory is largely post-hoc
3) An assumption that women are incomplete people
4) Lack of sensitivity to cultural variations
5) No empirical support for the psycho-sexual theory and adult fixations

Question 20

What does Eysenck state about Crime and personality?

Answer 20

Eysenck’s theory of criminal personality suggests that personality is biologically based and that personality traits include dimensions of extroversion, neuroticism psychoticism. Criminals and other deviants will often display heightened levels of at least one of these characteristics

Question 21

In addition to its weak empirical basis, Eysenck’s conclusions have been met with further criticism. Explain the objections his his conclusions receive.

Answer 21

Eysenck’s is accused of circular argumentation; criminals are regarded as having particular personality types which is then used a further explanation for why people commit criminal acts.

Another critique comes from the fact he assumes that personality is stable, and not subject to long term environmental and even immediate contextual pressures.

Question 22

Hervey Cleckley (1964) describes common features of ASPD. What are they?

Answer 22

Considerable charm

Above average intelligence

Unreliability and lack of responsibility

Dishonesty (compulsive lying)

Desire for instant gratification

Pathological egocentricity

Disregard for the feelings of others

No organized life plan

Failure to learn from experience

Early childhood symptoms

Question 23

What is the basis behind Daryl Bem’s explanation of homosexuality?

Answer 23

People who largely associated with members of the other sex in childhood are more likely to develop homosexual tendencies in adulthood. This is because they have little interaction with their own sex and this lack of “off-putting” familiarity then evolves into sexual attraction.

Question 24

Bem’s “exotic becomes erotic” explanation of argues both ‘similarity’ and ‘familiarity’ as evince of his claims. What does he mean by this and what does he find?

Answer 24

Similarity- commonality of experiences felt among Gay populations. The San Francisco Survey (Bell et al. 1981): Gay people reported similar feelings of difference from people of their sex.

Familiarity- homosexual kinship and closer awareness of those in the opposite sex.
The San Francisco Survey: Gay people had a larger number of childhood friends from the other sex

Studies in Taiwan, Israel and New Guinea: Close association in childhood reduces sexual attraction in adulthood.

Question 25

What weaknesses does Daryl Bem’s theory share with other psychological explanations? what other criticisms has it faced?

Answer 25

It is difficult to claim that there are personality to traits that are essential and discrete to particular deviant groups. Moreover, like many other psychological theories, Bem offers a post-hoc diagnosis of homosexuality, which results in circular reasoning. Specifically within the case of “exotic becomes erotic”, this manifests itself within another criticism as Bem fails to properly establish a time order. It is very possible that traits resulting from homosexuality may result in closeness towards the opposite sex, rather than the inverse as Bem suggests.

Question 26

What critiques has the “exotic becomes erotic” perspective faced?

Answer 26

1) Questionable empirical support

• Most gay people had many friends of the same sex
• Differences in sibling male/female ratios do not predict homosexuality
• Cross-cultural evidence is shaky

2) Misrepresentation of women’s experiences
- Women often form attraction in different ways
- Non-conformity is different for boys and for girls.

Question 27

According to Durkheimian theory, deviance has a social function. Describe and explain.

Answer 27

Boundary maintenance: Durkheim argues that negative sanction for a crime is not to punish the criminal but rather to reaffirm norms and values and reinforce solidarity.

Adaptation and change: Deviance and crime are suggestive of a need of change.Over time deviant behaviour, if persistent becomes the norm.

Question 28

What does Kingsley Davies say within his functionalist analysis of prostitution?

Answer 28

Davies argues that prostitution acts as a safety valve for men’s sexual release, allowing the maintenance of the nuclear family.

Question 29

What critiques do Functionalist approaches to Deviance face?

Answer 29

They are criticised on the grounds that they often have tautological (circular) explanations which often render them non-falsifiable. It is also debatable to whether crime really does increase solidarity. Moreover, functionalism is often negligent of sub-cultures, regarding society as a holistic entity.

Question 30

Describe Merton’s strain theory

Answer 30

See Pic.

Question 31

What are the failings of Metron’s strain theory?

Answer 31

1) Influenced by specific historical events
2) Focuses on the lower socio-economic classes
3) Assumptions of rationality and well calculated decision making
4) The is no universal set of norms (goals)
5) Time order and confusing cause and effect

Question 32

Robert Agnew develops upon Merton’s concept of strain theory in his own “General strain theory”. What other factors does he present that incite criminal behaviour through the result of social strain?

Answer 32

Social strain that are most likely t result in criminality and deviance are often:

1) Considered unjust
2) Especially strong
3) associated with a lack of perceived control

Question 33

Agnew’s GST also describes relationships that are particular likely to cause strain. What are they?

Answer 33

1) With people who prevent goal achievement
2) With people who remove positive stimuli
3) With people who present a negative stimuli

Question 34

What is a conflict theory and Give examples?

Answer 34

A generic term for sociological theories positing that society is in a state of perpetual conflict, holding that social order is maintained by domination and power.

In Marxism this conflict arises because of competition for limited resources, while feminist perspectives argue that this conflict occurs due to the fact that we live in a patriarchal society.

Question 35

What type of Sociologist is Spitzer and what do they say about deviance?

Answer 35

Spitzer develops are Marxist theory of Deviance. In their account they argue that deviance is ascribed to those disrupt the capitalist order.

Question 36

What critiques are offered against Marxist approaches to deviance?

Answer 36

1) They are largely non-falsifiable.
2) The working classes are particularly negatively affected by criminality.
3) Often hard to explain hard violence

4) Communist societies still have crime and deviance
5) In Western societies most people belong to the middle classes (neither bourgeoisie nor proletariat)

Question 37

What do feminist approaches offer in their explanations of deviance?

Answer 37

1) They challenge androcentric theories regarding womens deviance
2) They criticise genderised and naturalised views on deviance.
3) They put spotlight on women’s victimology and highlight the culture of masculinity and violence

Question 38

What is Pollack’s (1950) contribution to the sociology of crime and how is it criticised?

Answer 38

In his Chivalry thesis, Pollak argues that men are socialised to be protective of women, as a result the police force and the judicial courts (male dominated) are more likely to show leniency to female offenders.

However, such accounts are contestable as through the fact that women are more likely to commit lesser crimes that offer lesser time and often display more remorse.

Question 39

How does Labelling theory influence conclusions drawn in Tannenbaum’s (1938): The Dramatization of Evil?

Answer 39

An act defined as deviant/ evil is transofrmed into a definition upon the actor themselves. This then results in the actor internalising said label onto their “self concept”.

Question 40

Who else is significant in Labelling approaches to deviance?

Answer 40

Cicourel and Becker

Question 41

What criticism are directed at Labelling approaches to deviance?

Answer 41

1) They fail to explain why deviance occurs in the first place.
2) Does not account for severe and violent crime.
3) Predominately deals with youth, failing to examine long term effects.
4) Braithwaites study on Re-integrative shaming exhibits particularly questionable empirical evidence.

Question 42

Braithwaite describes two types of negative deviant labelling, what are they and how are they applied?

Answer 42

Disintegrative shaming: The agent is excluded from society due to both the agent and the action itself being labelled as deviant

Reintegrative shaming: Only the action itself is labelled as deviant, as such the agent is more easily able to rejoin society.

Question 43

What is control theory and what does it state about deviance? Give two significant contributors to Control theory perspectives.

Answer 43

Control Theory, or Social Control Theory, is a positivist approach which states that a person’s inner and outer controls both work together to negate deviant tendencies. Control is either ‘formal’, regulated by legislation or; informal, regulated through social interaction.

1) Walter Reckless
2) Travis Hirschi

Question 44

What types of commitment are described within containment theory, Reckless’ perspectives on social control? How does this prevent deviance

Answer 44

People are prevented from deviant actions through two types of commitments: external commitments to people and intuitions, as well as internal commitments that demonstrate a willingness to conform with social norms and values.

Question 45

Hirschi argues that in most people, social bonds negate deviance and act as controls upon individual behaviours. What bonds does he describe and why is deviance caused?

Answer 45

Hirschi describes four different components of social bonds:

1) Attachment
2) Commitment
3) Involvement
4) Belief

when social bonds are particularly weak between individuals and society, deviant tendencies and eventually crime may result.

Question 46

What objections are directed at the control theory approaches of crime and deviance?

Answer 46

They are assume that everyone is motivated to commit deviant acts, and that this motivation is based on rationality.

Moreover, it is difficult to explain why those with strong social bonds may commit crimes.

There is also mixed empirical evidence.

Question 47

Sutherland (1947) makes comparisons between the crime rates among both first and second generation immigrants. What were his findings and conclusions?

Answer 47

He found that second generation immigrants had significantly higher crime rates. He attributed this to the idea of ‘differential association’, the learning of deviant behaviours and justification occurs through an association with deviant peer groups.

Question 48

Sykes and Matza (1964) also contribute to Differential association theories of deviance. What patterns of deviance justifications do they note within their findings.

Answer 48

Sykes and Matza describe four neutralisation techniques used to justify deviant behaviour.

1) Denial of Responsibility
2) Denial of the injury/victim
3) Condemnation of the condemners
4) Appealing to higher loyalties

Question 49

Ingram and Hinduja (2008) contribute to Differential association theories of deviance. How?

Answer 49

They provide empirical evidence of the use of neutralisation techniques when violating property rights.

Question 50

What are the main ideas common within learning theories of deviance?

Answer 50

1) Both deviant and normative behaviours are learned. Moreover, they are both learned through our social interactions.
2) Learning is done in intimate groups
3) We learn both deviant techniques and attitudes that allow us to rationalise them
4) There is a competition between deviant and non-deviant behaviours and norms

Question 51

What criticisms are directed at Differential association/ learning theories?

Answer 51

1) They fail to pay adequate attention to individual characteristics and choice.
2) Much of the research is directed at lower-working-class, male, urban adolescents.
3) They fail to consider time order and causality.
4) They neglect the importance of complementary explanations .