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BIOL 2005 > Midterm Study Deck > Flashcards

Midterm Study Deck Flashcards

1
Q

3 Domains

A

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryotic

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2
Q

What are humans classified as?

A

Eukarya, Animelia, HomoSapiens

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3
Q

What are the 4 kingdoms of Eukarya?

A

Protista, Animalia, Fungi, Plantae

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4
Q

Human Characteristics

A

 Bipedalism: walk on two legs, frees hands for carrying
 Large brain: relative to body size
 Capacity for complex language: written, oral, symbols, etc.
 Opposable thumbs: thumbs can move into position to oppose the tips of the fingers

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5
Q

How to answer questions in science?

A
  1. Observe and generalize
  2. Formulate a hypothesis
  3. Make a testable prediction
  4. Experiment or observe
    * Independent variable: intentionally manipulated or changed
    * Dependent variable: changes in response to changes
  5. Modify the hypothesis as necessary and repeat
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6
Q

Chemistry of Living Things: Broken Down

A

Atoms are the smallest functional units of elements, elements make up matter, matter occupies mass and space, chemical bonds link atoms to form molecules

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7
Q

Name the 5 types of chemical bonds

A

o Polar covalent bonds
o Non-polar covalent bonds
o Ionic bonds
o Hydrogen bonds
o Van der Waals Force

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8
Q

6 main elements in the body

A

 Oxygen
 Carbon
 Hydrogen (one of the most important ions in the body)
 Nitrogen
 Calcium
 Phosphorus

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9
Q

Acid

A

high H+ concentration in solution, pH < 7

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10
Q

Base

A

Loq H+ concentration in solution, pH > 7

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11
Q

Buffer

A

any substance that tends to minimize the changes in pH that might otherwise occur when an acid or base is added to a solution

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12
Q

4 types of organic molecules

A

 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic acids

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13
Q

Carbon

A

 Comprises 18% of the body by weight
 Can form single, double or triple bonds
 Often bonds with hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, or other carbons
 Can form linear, branched, or ring-shaped molecules
 4 valence electrons so wants 4 more

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14
Q

Carbohydrates

A

 Used for energy and structural support
 General formula CH2O
 Backbone of carbons with hydrogen and oxygen attached in the same proportion as they appear in water
 Functions:
* Energy source for most organisms
* Structural support, such as cellulose in plant cell walls

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15
Q

Monosaccharides

A

 Simple sugars
 Eg. Glucose, fructose, galactose, RNA, DNA
 Glucose monomers can be joined to form more complex carbs
 Monosaccharides can be linked together vis dehydration synthesis
* Also called condensation reaction
* Bonding of molecules with removal of water molecule

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16
Q

Disaccharides

A

 two monosaccharides linked together
 Sucrose: glucose + fructose
 Maltose: glucose + glucose
 Lactose: glucose + galactose

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17
Q

Polysaccharides

A

 Store energy
 Thousands of monosaccharides joined in linear and/or branched chains
 Functions:
* Energy storage
o Starch: made in plants
o Glycogen: made in animals
* Structural support
o Cellulose: indigestible polysaccharide made in plants for structural support

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18
Q

Hydrolysis

A

 Break down organic molecules by addition of water molecule

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19
Q

Lipids

A

o Insoluble in water (hydrophobic)
o 3 classes
o Lipids are the only class of macromolecules that are not assembled by joining monomers to form polymers

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20
Q

Triglycerides

A
  • Energy storage molecules
  • AKA fats and oil
  • Composed of glycerol bonded to three fatty acids
    o Fatty acudes
     Saturated (in fats) - all single bonds between carbons
  • Can be closely packed
  • Generally solid at room temperature
     Unsaturated (in oils)—include some double bonds between carbons
  • Better for you because don’t come together as much
    o Stored in adipose tissue
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21
Q

Phospholipids

A
  • Cell membrane structure
    o Glycerol plus two fatty acids and phosphate group
    o One end of molecule (phosphate and glycerol) is water soluble (hydrophilic head)
    o Other end of molecule (two fatty acid tails) is water insoluble (hydrophobic tails)
    o Primary component of cell membranes
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21
Q

Steroids

A
  • Carbon-based ring structures – four carbon rings
  • E.g. cholesterol
  • Hormones
    o Estrogen,
    o testosterone
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22
Q

Proteins

A

o Complex structures constructed of amino acides
 Long chains (polymers) of subunits (monomers) called amino acids
* A polypeptide longer than 100 amino acids that has a complex structure and function
o Protein Function Depends on Structure, Charges can change the shape of proteins, but function of protein depended on shape.

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23
Q

Amino Acids

A
  • 20 different types
  • Amino end, carboxyl end, R group
     Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds, which are produced by dehydration synthesis reactions
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24
Q

Peptide Bond

A
  • Forms between carboxyl end of one amino acid and amino end of the next amino acid
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25
Q

Polypeptide

A
  • A polymer of 3–100 amino acids
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26
Q

Primary Structure

A
  • Amino acide sequence
  • Stabilized by peptide bonds
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27
Q

Secondary Structure

A
  • How the chain is oriented in space
  • Alpha helix
  • Beta pleated sheets
  • Stabilized by hydrogen bonds
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28
Q

Tertiary Structure

A
  • Three-dimensional shape how proteins twist and fold
  • Stabilized by a combination of covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and hydrogen bonds
  • Creates polar and nonpolar areas within the protein molecule
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29
Q

Quaternary Structure

A
  • Two or more polypeptide chains are joined.
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30
Q

Denaturation

A

permanent disruption of protein structure leading to loss of biological function

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31
Q

Nucleic Acid

A

o Store genetic information
o Nucleic acids are long chains (polymers) containing monomer subunits known as nucleotides
o Two types of nucleic acids
 DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
 RNA: ribonucleic acid

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32
Q

DNA

A

o DNA contains the instructions for producing RNA

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33
Q

RNA

A

o RNA contains the instructions for producing proteins
o RNA is shorter, representing only the segment of DNA that codes for one or more proteins

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34
Q

Nucleotides

A

 Building blocks (monomers) of nucleic acids
o Each nucleotide contains
 Five-carbon sugar
* Deoxyribose (in DNA nucleotides)
* Ribose (in RNA nucleotides)
 Nitrogenous base
* A,G,C,T,U
 Phosphate group

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35
Q

Pairing of bases DNA

A

 Adenine-Thyamine (double bonded)
 Cytosine-Guanine (triple bonded)

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36
Q

Pairing of bases RNA

A
  • A-Uracil (double bonded)
  • G-C (triple bonded)
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37
Q

Prokaryotic Cells

A

o More “primitive”
o Internal environment of cell is not divided into membrane-bound compartments
o Prokaryotes Lack a Nucleus and Organelles
 Prokaryotes include all organisms in the domains Bacteria and Archaea
 Prokaryotic cell structure consists of:
* Plasma membrane
* Cytoplasm
* Genetic material is not enclosed by a membrane
* No membrane-bound organelles
 Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller than eukaryotic cells

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38
Q

Eukaryotic Cells

A

o Internal environment is divided into membrane-bound compartments called organelles
o Eukaryotes Have a Nucleus, Cytoplasm, and Organelles
 Eukaryotes include human and all other animals, plants, fungi, and protists
 Eukaryotic cell structure includes:
* Plasma membrane
* Nucleus
o Membrane-bound genetic material
* Cytoplasm
o Internal cell contents, excluding the nucleus
o Includes soft gel-like fluid called cytosol
* Organelles
o Variety of membrane-bound structures within the cytoplasm with specialized functions

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39
Q

Light Microscope

A

o Magnifies up to 1000x
o Can be used to view living samples

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40
Q

Transmission Electron Microscope

A

o Magnifies up to 100 000x
 Can reveal internal details of cell structure

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41
Q

Scanning Electron Microscope

A

 Magnifies up to 100 000x
 Provides three-dimensional view of cell surface

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42
Q

Nucleus

A

Controls the cell, information centre Contains DNA.
Large, spherical organelle in the cell. Appears with multiple pores on the surface. Contains a smaller sphere within it
o Double-layered nuclear membrane
o Nuclear pores: permit passage of RNA and proteins
o Chromosomes: D N A (genetic information)
o Nucleolus: site of synthesis of ribosome components

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43
Q

Ribosomes

A

Synthesize proteins
- Composed of RNA and protein
- Role of ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
- Location
o Free: floating in cytoplasm
 These ribosomes synthesize proteins for immediate use in the cell
o Bound: attached to outer surface of endoplasmic reticulum
 These ribosomes synthesize proteins that will be transported to other organelles or exported from the cell

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44
Q

Rough Endoplasmic reticulum

A

manufacturing center (calcium storage, protein synthesis, lipid metabolism)
Layered and ruffled membranous structure continuous with the nuclear membrane. Dotted with ribosomes.
- Highly folded membranous network
- Two types of endoplasmic reticulum (E R)
o Rough E R (has ribosomes on surface)
 Attached ribosomes manufacture proteins which may be modified in the E R, particularly those that will be secreted from the cell
o Smooth E R (no ribosomes on surface)
 Lipid synthesis, including the synthesis of some hormones
 Packaging of proteins and lipids for delivery to Golgi apparatus

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45
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

Refines, packages, and ships
Large organelle consisting of stacks of flattened membranous sacs and tubules
- Refines synthesized products
- Serves as packaging and shipping center
- Products are packaged into vesicles and shipped to other locations within the cell or to the cell membrane for export

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46
Q

Vesicles

A

Membrane bound storage and stripping centers
Small Spherical vesicle that has fused with the inside of the plasma membrane.

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47
Q

Mitochondria

A

Provide energy (powerhouse of the cell)
Oval or kidney shaped organelle that is filled with a matrix of ruffles.
- Surrounded by a double membrane
- Inner membrane is highly folded, more surface area
- Divides mitochondria into:
 Inner compartment
 Outer compartment
- Site of cellular respiration
- Utilizes O2 and produces CO2
- Generates (36-38) ATP—a quick source of energy

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48
Q

Nucleolus

A

Synthesis of ribosomal subunits
A small, dense spherical structure in the nucleus

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49
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

Controls movement of materials into and out of the cell. Description, Outer edge and barrier of the cell

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50
Q

Cytosol

A

Semifluid gel material inside the cell
The region between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.

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51
Q

Peroxisome

A

Destroys cellular toxic waste.
Small, spherical vesicle.

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52
Q

Centrioles.

A

Microtubular structures involved in cell division
Two bundles of long rods.

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53
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Structural framework of the cell.
Long, thin filaments found throughout the cell.

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54
Q

Lysosome

A

Digests damaged organelles and cellular debris.
Small Spherical vesicle.

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55
Q

Fat

A

Long term energy source
o Triglycerides
o Long-term energy storage in animals
o Stored in cytoplasm of fat cells

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56
Q

Glycogen

A

Short term energy source
o Carbohydrate storage
o Short-term energy storage in animals
o Stored in cytoplasm of muscle cells and liver cells

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57
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Internal scaffolding - helps maintain cell shape
- Cytoskeleton is composed of:
o Microtubules: tiny hollow tubes of protein
o Microfilaments: thin solid fibers of protein
o Microtubules and microfilaments form framework that supports the cell
 Much like tent poles support a tent
o Cytoskeleton also supports and anchors other cellular structures

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58
Q

Cilia

A

specialized for movement
o Short, many
o Found on cells lining airways and certain ducts

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59
Q

Flagella

A

specialized for movement
o Long, single
o Enable spermatozoa to swim

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60
Q

Plasma Membrane

A

Surrounds the cell
- Separates a cell from its environment
- Is selectively permeable
o Permits movement of some substances into and out of the cell, but blocks others
- Enables transfer of information between environment and cell
The Plasma Membrane Is a Lipid Bilayer
- Plasma membrane is composed of:
o Phospholipids: two layers (bilayer)
 Polar heads face outside and face the cytoplasm
 Nonpolar tails meet in center
o Cholesterol: increases mechanical strength
o Proteins: provide means of transport through membrane for molecules and for information
- Nonrigid

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61
Q

Passive Transport

A

cell does not need to expend energy for this
o Diffusion
o Osmosis
o Facilitated diffusion
o a type of cellular transport in which substances such as ions and molecules move down their respective concentration gradients.

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62
Q

Active transport

A

cell must expend energy
Bulk transport
o Involves membranous vesicles to move larger substances
 Endocytosis
 Exocytosis
- the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane into a region of higher concentration, assisted by enzymes and requiring energy.
- Requires a membrane protein (transporter)
- These proteins are sometimes called “pumps”
- Requires A T P or other energy source

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63
Q

Diffusion

A

movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
- Requires that there be a concentration gradient
- A difference in concentration between two points
- High concentration → low concentration
- When the concentration of a substance is the same throughout a solution—it has reached equilibrium
- Diffusion is only effective in the body over short distances (across membranes, within cells)

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64
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
* Water moves from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration
* Water moves down its own concentration gradient
* Osmotic pressure: fluid pressure required to stop or oppose osmosis

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65
Q

Diffusion Directly Through the Lipid Bilayer

A
  • Small lipid soluble substances can move directly through the phospholipid bilayer without the assistance of a channel or transporter protein
  • Transport of small, uncharged, nonpolar molecules
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66
Q

Diffusion Through Protein Channels

A
  • Protein channels span the membrane and enable the transport of some molecules
  • Size, shape, and electrical charges of amino acids lining the channel determine what molecules can pass through
    o Some always open
    o Others are “gated”—the channel can open or close under certain conditions
    o Examples of substances transported:
    - (osmosis)
  • Ions
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67
Q

Facilitated Transport

A
  • Also referred to as facilitated diffusion
  • Binding of a specific molecule to a membrane transport protein triggers a change in the shape of the protein which then carries the molecule through the membrane bilayer
  • Transporter proteins are highly selective for specific substances
  • Examples of substances transported:
    o Glucose
    o Amino acids
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68
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A

Active Transport
* Transports sodium out of the cell
* Transports potassium into the cell
* Both ions are transported against their concentration gradient

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69
Q

Endocytosis

A

brings substances into the cell
o A substance in the extracellular environment is surrounded by the cell’s plasma membrane and internalized, forming a membrane-bound vesicle
o Some vesicles are selective and have receptors for specific substances
 Example: transport of insulin into cells

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70
Q

Exocytosis

A

expels substances from the cell
o Substance is contained within a membranous vesicle, which then fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing the substance to the external environment
o Release of wastes, indigestible material, secretion of special products

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71
Q

Tonicity

A

relative concentration of solutes in two fluids

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72
Q

Isotonic

A

o Extracellular and intracellular solute concentrations are equal.
o Cells maintain a normal volume in isotonic extracellular fluids.
o Regulatory mechanisms maintain extracellular fluid that is isotonic with intracellular fluid

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73
Q

Hypertonic

A

o Extracellular solute concentration higher than intracellular solute concentration (OUTSIDE HIGHER THAN INSIDE)
o Water will diffuse out of cell (osmosis)—moving toward the higher solute concentration
o Cell may shrink and die

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74
Q

Hypotonic

A

o Extracellular solute concentration lower than intracellular solute concentration (OUTSIDE LOWER THAN INSIDE)
o Water will diffuse into cell (osmosis)—moving toward higher solute concentration
o Cell may swell and burst

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75
Q

Glucose

A
  • Energy in glucose is used to generate A T P.
  • One glucose molecule may yield 36 A T P.
  • A T P can then be used to do cellular work., more readily used
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76
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen to yield A T P
- Four stages of cellular respiration
- Glycolysis
- Preparatory step
- Citric acid cycle
- Electron transport system and oxidative phosphorylation

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77
Q

Glycogen

A

1% of total energy reserves
- Can be rapidly catabolized to glucose, which then participates in cellular respiration

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78
Q

Fats

A

78% of total energy reserves
- Triglycerides have twice the energy of an equal amount of carbohydrates

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79
Q

Proteins

A

21% of total energy reserves
- Have the same amount of energy as an equal amount of carbohydrates

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80
Q

Lactic Acid

A

Made when cellular respiration doesn’t have oxygen, pyruvate will build up which converts to lactic acid. Build up in muscle causes burning sensation.

  • In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis is the only ATP-producing step available. Glycolysis without oxygen results in lactic acid buildup.
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81
Q

Unicellular Organisms

A
  • Earliest organisms were unicellular
  • Unicellular organisms consist of just one cell
  • Unicellular organisms depend on their immediate external environment which may vary extensively
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82
Q

Multicellular Organisms

A
  • Consist of many cells
  • Larger size
  • Able to seek out or maintain a favorable external environment
  • Cells specialize and contribute to the well-being of other cells
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83
Q

Tissues

A
  • groups of specialized cells that are similar in structure and perform a common function
  • Several types of tissue may be grouped to form an organ
  • Four primary tissues
  • Connective tissue
  • Epithelial tissue
  • Muscle tissue
  • Nervous tissue
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84
Q

Epithelial Tissues

A
  • Organized as sheets of cells that line or cover various surfaces and body cavities, one or more layers
  • Ex. Skin, mouth lining, inner surfaces of digestive tract, lungs, bladder, blood vessel and kidney tubules
  • Two basic purposes
  • Protection, secretion, and absorption
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85
Q

Glandular epithelia

A

 Epithelial cells adapted to form glands
 Glands: epithelial tissues specialized to synthesize and secrete a product

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86
Q

Exocrine glands

A

(exo- means “outside” or “outward”)
* Secrete their products into a hollow organ or duct.
Examples of exocrine glands are the glands in your mouth that secrete saliva, glands in your skin that excrete sweat, and glands in your stomach that produce digestive acid.

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87
Q

Endocrine gland

A
  • Secrete substances called hormones into the bloodstream.
    One endocrine gland is the thyroid gland, which secretes several hormones that help regulate your body’s growth and metabolism.
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88
Q

Squamous Tissue

A

 Flattened cells
 Forms outer surface of the skin
 Line blood vessels, lungs, mouth, throat

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89
Q

Cuboidal Tissue

A

 Cube-shaped cells
 Form lining of kidney tubules, glandular tissue

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90
Q

Columnar

A

 Column-shaped (tall, rectangular) cells
 Line digestive tract, certain reproductive organs, larynx
 May include goblet cells that secrete mucus

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91
Q

Single Layered Epithelial Tissue

A

 Adapted for diffusion across cell barriers
 Line glands, and respiratory, digestive, reproductive systems

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92
Q

Stratified: Multi Layer Epithelial Tissue

A

 Provide protection, as in the skin surface

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93
Q

Basement Membrane

A
  • Noncellular layer directly beneath epithelial tissue
  • Composed of proteins secreted by epithelial cells and connective tissue
  • Provides structural support to overlying cells
  • Attaches epithelial layer to underlying connective tissue
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94
Q

Connective Tissue

A
  • Supports the softer organs of the body against gravity
  • Connects the parts of the body together
  • Stores fat
  • Produces the cells of blood
  • Matrix provides the strength
  • Two general types
  • Fibrous
  • Specialized
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95
Q

Fibrous Connective Tissue

A
  • Function: provides strength, support, and elasticity
  • Contains fibers and cells embedded in matrix
  • Cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, lymphocytes, and neutrophils
  • Fibers: collagen, elastic, and reticular
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96
Q

Fibers in Fibrous Connective Tissue

A
  • Collagen fibers: strong, slightly flexible
  • Elastic fibers: thinner, can stretch
  • Reticular fibers: thin interconnective fibers of collagen
  • Provide internal structural framework for soft organs (liver, spleen, lymph nodes)
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97
Q

Fibroblasts

A

produce and secrete proteins that form the fibers (collagen, elastin)

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98
Q

Cartilage

A
  • Functions:
  • Transitional tissue from which bone develops
  • Maintains shape of nose and ears
  • Protects and cushions joints and vertebrae
  • Structure:
  • Dense connective tissue of collagen fibers
  • Slow to heal when injured
  • There are no blood vessels in cartilage, so the mature cells (called chondrocytes) obtain their nutrients only by diffusion through the ground substance from blood vessels located outside the cartilage. Consequently, cartilage is slow to heal when injured.
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99
Q

Bone

A
  • Contains relatively few living cells
  • Matrix (ground substance) composed of calcium phosphate
  • Does it contain blood vessels?
    o Unlike cartilage, bone contains numerous blood vessels, and for this reason it can heal within four to six weeks after being injured.
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100
Q

Blood

A
  • Plasma: cells suspended in a fluid matrix
  • Cells: derived from stem cells in bone marrow
  • Cell types include:
  • Red blood cells: transport oxygen and nutrients to body cells and carry away the waste products of the cells metabolism.
  • White blood cells: Found in the immune system to defend the body.
    Platelets: Participate in the mechanisms that cause blood to clot following an injury
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101
Q

Adipose Tissue

A
  • Function: fat storage
  • Adipocytes: fat cells store fat in vacuoles
  • Location of adipose tissue:
  • Under the skin
  • Around internal organs
  • Beneficial roles:
  • Insulation
  • Cushioning
  • Weight loss reduces size of individual adipocytes but does not necessarily reduce their number
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102
Q

Muscle Tissue

A
  • Muscle cells shorten or contract, producing movement
  • Muscle cells are called muscle fibers
  • Long, thin
  • Arranged parallel to each other
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103
Q

Skeletal Muscles

A
  • Connect to tendons which attach to bone
  • Contract (shorten) to move body parts
  • Composed of thousands of individual muscle fibers (cells) arranged in parallel
  • Fibers have multiple nuclei
  • Voluntary—under conscious control
  • Activated only by nerves
  • 600 skeletal muscles
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104
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A
  • Located only in the heart
  • Shorter cells, blunt-ended, one nucleus per cell
  • Gap junctions: allow direct electrical connections between adjoining cells
  • Enable coordinated contraction of entire heart
  • Involuntary: heart contracts rhythmically entirely on its own
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105
Q

Smooth Muscle

A
  • Surrounds hollow organs and tubes
  • blood vessels
  • digestive tract
  • uterus
  • bladder
  • Slim cells tapered at ends
  • One nucleus per cell
  • Gap junctions enable coordinated contraction
  • Involuntary
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106
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

Consists primarily of cells that are specialized for generating and transmitting electrical impulses throughout the body. It forms a rapid communication network for the body. Nervous tissue is located in the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves that transmit information to and from various organs.

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107
Q

Neuron

A

specialized nervous system cell
- Function: generate and transmit electrical impulses
- Structural components
 cell body: nucleus and most of the cytoplasm
 dendrites: cytoplasmic extensions from cell body, receive signals from other neurons
 axon: transmits electrical impulses long distances

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108
Q

Glial Cells

A
  • Function:
     Surround and protect neurons
     Provide nutrients to neurons
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109
Q

Organs

A
  • Structures composed of two or more tissue types joined together; perform specific functions
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110
Q

Organ Systems

A
  • Groups of organs that together serve a broad function that is important to survival either of the individual organism or a species.
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111
Q

Anterior Cavity

A
  • Whole Front of body
  • Divided by diaphragm into:
     Thoracic cavity
     Two pleural cavities (each contains a lung)
     Pericardial cavity (encloses the heart)
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112
Q

Abdominal Cavity

A

 Pelvic cavity: lower part of abdominal cavity

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113
Q

Posterior cavity

A

Back of head: Cranial + Vertebral

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114
Q

Cranial Cavity

A

Head

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115
Q

Spinal Cavity

A

Spine

116
Q

Three body planes

A
  • Midsagittal
     Divides body into left and right sides
  • Frontal
     Divides body into front and back
  • Transverse
     Divides body into top and bottom
117
Q

Anterior

A

at or near front

118
Q

Posterior

A

at or near back

119
Q

Procimal

A

nearer to any point of reference, usually the body trunk

120
Q

DIstal

A

farther away from a point of reference

121
Q

Superior

A

situated above or directly upward

122
Q

Inferior

A

situated below or directed downward

123
Q

Integumentary system

A

includes skin, hair, nails, glands
* Protection from dehydration (helps prevent our bodies
from drying out)
* Protection from injury (such as abrasion)
* Defense against invasion by bacteria and viruses
* Regulation of body temperature
* Synthesis of an inactive form of vitamin D
* Sensation: provides information about the external
world via receptors for touch, vibration, pain, and
temperature

124
Q

Epidermis

A
  • Outer layer of skin
  • Multiple layers of stratified squamous epithelial cells
  • Continually replaced by dividing cells at base of epidermis
  • No blood vessels
125
Q

Keratinocytes

A

Provide structural integrity to the epidermis. It produces a tough waterproof protein called keratin.

126
Q

Melanocytes

A

 Located near the base of the epidermis, produce a dark brown pigment called melanin, which is then picked up and stored by the nearby keratinocytes.
 Protects us against the suns ultraviolet radiation, exposure to sunlight increases melanocytes activity

127
Q

Dermis

A
  • Primarily dense connective tissue
     Collagen, elastic, reticular fibers
  • Lies underneath the epidermis
  • Supports tissues
128
Q

Hair

A
  • Shaft above the skin surface
  • Root below surface in the hair follicle
  • Follicle: sheath of several cell layers that supports the root
129
Q

Smooth Muscle

A
  • Attached to hair follicle, Why?
    o Contracts when you are frightened or cold, causing your hair to become more erect
130
Q

Sebaceous Glands

A
  • Secrete sebum, which moistens and softens skin
131
Q

Sweat Glands

A
  • Secrete sweat to help in temperature regulation
  • Contains antimicrobial peptide that protects against bacteria
132
Q

Blood Vessels

A
  • Supply nutrients, remove waste, assist in temperature regulation
133
Q

Sensory Nerve Endings

A
  • Detect heat, cold, touch, deep pressure, vibration
134
Q

Homeostasis

A

Constancy of the conditions within the internal environment
* Multicellular organisms devote a significant portion of their metabolic activities to maintaining homeostasis
Homeostasis Is Maintained by Negative Feedback

135
Q

Negative Feedback

A

Deviations from normal are detected and counteracted
* Components of a negative feedback control system
* Controlled variable: any physical or chemical property that might vary and must be controlled to maintain homeostasis
* Sensor (receptor): monitors current value for controlled variable and sends information to control center
* Control center: receives input from sensor, compares value to set point, signals the effector if necessary
* Effector: takes action to correct the imbalance, based on information from the control center

136
Q

Positive Feedback

A
  • Relatively uncommon in living organisms
  • A change in a controlled variable causes a series of events that amplifies the original change
  • Example: Childbirth, once labor has started the child must be born to end the positive feedback loop
  • Positive feedback is NOT a mechanism for maintaining homeostasis
137
Q

Muscle Composition

A
  • Muscle tissue is found in every organ
  • Muscles participate in every activity that requires movement
  • All muscle cells have one mechanism of action
    – They contract, then relax
  • Large proportion of body weight is muscle
    – 40% of body weight in males
    – 32% of body weight in females
138
Q

Voluntary Movement

A

conscious control over movement (picking up a pen)

139
Q

Involuntary Movement

A

unconscious control over movement (beating of heart)

140
Q

Synergistic muscles

A

act around a moveable joint to produce motion similar to or in concert with agonist muscles. They often act to reduce excessive force generated by the agonist muscle and are referred to as neutralizers

141
Q

Antagonistic muscles

A

The muscle that works in the opposite direction as that of the primary muscle or agonist muscle, which is engaged in some activity.

142
Q

Tendons

A

Muscle to bone attachment
Composed of tough connective tissue containing collagen
Tears and other injuries are very slow to heal

143
Q

Fascicles

A

Bundles of muscle fibers (cells)
wrapped with connective tissue
(fascia)

144
Q

Sarcomere

A

contractile unit of myofibrils
A sarcomere is a segment of myofibril extending
from one Z-line to the
One myofibril within one muscle cell may have
100,000 sarcomeres arranged end to end

145
Q

Myosin

A

Forms thick filaments
Myosin filaments are in middle of
sarcomere, between actin filaments

146
Q

Actin

A

Forms thin filaments
Actin filaments are linked to Z-line

147
Q

Z-lines

A

Attachment points for sarcomeres

148
Q

Muscle Contraction

A
  • Muscle contraction: each sarcomere shortens a little
  • Basic process of contraction
  • Skeletal muscle must be activated by a nerve impulse
  • Nerve activation increases the concentration of calcium ions in the vicinity of the contractile proteins
  • Presence of calcium ions enables contractions
  • When nerve stimulation stops, contraction stops
149
Q
  • Acetylcholine
A
  • Acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) is released from motor neuron at neuromuscular junction.
  • Acetylcholine diffuses across neuromuscular junction to muscle cell receptors.
  • Binding of Acetylcholine to muscle cell receptors generates electrical impulse within muscle cell.
  • Electrical impulse is transmitted through the cytoplasm.
150
Q

Calcium Initiates Sliding Filament

A
  • Activation Releases Calcium
  • Electrical impulse triggers calcium ion release.
  • Calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum (modified smooth endoplasmic reticulum). initiates chain of events that cause contraction when it contacts the myofibrils.
    1. Calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum.
    2. Calcium binds to troponin.
    3. Troponin–tropomyosin complex shifts position.
    4. Myosin binding site on actin is exposed.
    5. Myosin heads form cross-bridges with actin.
    6. Myosin heads bend, pulling actin filaments toward center of
    sarcomere.
    7. Sarcomere shortens.
    8. Muscle cells shorten.
    9. Muscle shortens (contracts).
151
Q

Sliding filament mechanism

A

Sliding filament mechanism

152
Q

Resting muscle

A

Heads of myosin molecules (thick filaments) do not contact
actin (thin filaments)

153
Q

Contraction Process

A

Myosin heads form cross-bridges between thin and thick
filaments
 Myosin heads bend, pulling actin filaments toward center of
sarcomere
 This process happens repeatedly, shortening the sarcomere
* Thousands of myosin cross-bridges form and myosin heads bend,
moving actin filaments relative to the myosin filaments.
* Hundreds of thousands of sarcomeres shorten, shortening muscle
cells and the entire muscle.

154
Q

Absence of Ca++

A

the troponin–tropomyosin blocks the site on
actin where myosin heads can bind

155
Q

Presence of Ca++

A

the troponin–tropomyosin complex shifts,
exposing myosin binding sites on actin filaments, enabling cross-
bridge formation

156
Q

Principle source of energy: ATP

A

– ATP required for contraction
 Provides energy to energize myosin head, form cross-bridge,
and undergo bending.
– ATP required for relaxation
 Provides energy to detach myosin head from actin.
* As long as Ca is present, cycle of ATP breakdown, myosin binding,
bending, and detachment occurs repeatedly and sarcomere shortens.
* Nerve impulse ends, energy from ATP breakdown is used to actively
transport Ca back to sarcoplasmic reticulum, enabling relaxation.

157
Q

Factors that influence muscle activity

A

Whether bones move
– Degree of nerve stimulation
– Type of muscle fiber
– Muscle mass
– Aerobic capacity

158
Q

Strength training

A

– Resistance training
– Builds more myofibrils, particularly in fast-twitch fibers
– Increases muscle mass and strength

159
Q

Aerobic training

A

– Activities that cause body to increase oxygen intake
– Builds endurance
– Increases blood supply to muscle cells
– Increase in mitochondria and myoglobin

160
Q

Activation of Cardiac and Smooth
Muscles

A
  • Involuntary—no conscious control
  • Able to contract entirely on their own in absence of nerve
    stimulation
  • Contraction is influenced by autonomic nervous system
  • Cardiac muscle:
    – Cardiac muscle cells are joined by intercalated discs
    – Have gap junctions allowing cells to electrically
    stimulate adjacent cells
    – Pacemaker cells: cardiac muscle cells that set the
    pace of contractions
161
Q

Arrangement of Myosin and Actin
Filaments

A

Cardiac muscle
– Sarcomere arrangement of
thick and thin filaments
– Striated appearance
* Smooth muscle
– Filaments arranged in criss-
crossed bundles, not
sarcomeres
– No striations, no sarcomeres

162
Q

Speed and Sustainability of Contraction

A

Skeletal muscle: fastest
* Cardiac muscle: moderate
* Smooth muscle
– Very slow
– Partially contracted all of the time
– Almost never fatigues

163
Q

Muscular Dystrophy

A

refers to a group of genetic diseases that cause progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles
– Genetic disease: Duchenne muscular
dystrophy
– Modified dystrophin protein enables leakage of Ca++
into cells
– Extra Ca++ activates enzymes that destroy muscle proteins
– Muscle weakening and wasting
– Muscle mass is replaced with fibrous connective tissue
– Life expectancy: approximately 30 years

164
Q

Tetanus

A

An infection caused by bacteria called Clostridium tetani
– Bacterial infection of a wound by Clostridium tetani
– Bacteria produce tetanus toxin
– Death due to respiratory failure
– Preventable by tetanus vaccine

165
Q

Muscle Cramps

A

a sudden, unexpected tightening of one or more muscles

166
Q

Pulled Muscle

A

when a muscle is stretched too much and part of it tears

167
Q

Bone

A

Hard elements of the skeleton
Hard, rigid appearance due to nonliving extracellular crystals of
calcium minerals
* Bones are living tissue containing several types of cells involved in
bone formation and remodeling
* Five important functions of bone
* Support
* Protection
* Movement
* Mineral storage
* hematopiesis
- Stability
- homeostasis

168
Q

Ligaments

A

Dense fibrous connective tissue
 Attach bone and bones in a synovial joint
* Made of dense fibrous connective tissue
* Provide strength in joints yet enable movement

169
Q

Cartilage

A

Specialized connective tissue, fibers of collagen and elastic in a
gel-like ground substance
 Cushions vertebrae
 Reduces friction in joints

170
Q

Compact Bone

A

contains marrow space
 Yellow bone marrow (mostly fat) in
marrow space

171
Q

Spongy Bone

A

trabeculae form
lattice-like support in ends of long
bones
 Spaces may contain red bone marrow
 Red marrow contains stem cells which
produce red blood cells, white blood
cells, platelets

172
Q

Periosteum

A

connective tissue covering of bone
– Contain Osteoblasts
– Generate new bone during growth and repair

173
Q

Osteoblasts

A

bone-forming cells

174
Q

Osteons/Haversian system

A

cellular arrangement found in compact
bone
– Extracellular deposits of calcium phosphate enclosing living cells
(Osteocytes)

175
Q

Osteocytes

A

Osteocytes arranged in rings called osteons (Haversian
systems)

176
Q

Central Canal

A

Blood Vessels

177
Q

Types of Cartilage

A

– Fibrocartilage
 Intervertebral disks between vertebrae
 Menisci in knee joints
– Hyaline
 Forms embryonic structure, which later forms bone
 Covers and protects ends of long bones in joints, providing
protection, reducing friction
– Elastic cartilage
 Flexible
 Outer ear, nose, epiglottis

178
Q

Bone development

A
  • Early fetal development: cartilage models form
    – Formed by chondroblasts (cartilage-forming cells)
  • Later fetal development: osteoblasts replace cartilage
    with bone
    Long bones continue to lengthen during childhood
  • Growth occurs at growth plate
  • Bones may also grow in diameter as osteoblasts
    deposit bone beneath the periosteum
179
Q

How many bones does an adult
have?

A

206

180
Q

Bone Remodeling

A

changes in shape, size, strength
* Weight-bearing exercise increases overall bone mass and strength

181
Q

Osteoclasts

A

cells that degrade bone to initiate normal bone remodeling and mediate bone loss in pathologic conditions by increasing their resorptive activity

182
Q

Osteoblasts

A

cells that form new bones and grow and heal existing bones

183
Q

Osteoporosis

A

is loss of bone mass due to prolonged imbalance of osteoblast and osteoclast activity

184
Q

Long Bones

A

These bones are longer than they are wide and have a shaft with two ends. Examples include the femur, humerus, and radius.

185
Q

Short Bones

A

These bones are roughly equal in length, width, and thickness. Examples include the bones in the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals).

186
Q

Flat Bones

A

These bones are flat and often provide protection and serve as attachment points for muscles. Examples include the skull bones (such as the parietal bone), scapula, and sternum.

187
Q

Irregular Bones

A

These bones have complex shapes that don’t fit into the other categories. Examples include the vertebrae and facial bones.

188
Q

Skeleton Purpose

A

Protects, Supports, and Permits Movement
* Provides support for soft organs
* Protects many organs
* Joints provide flexible movement of many parts of the body

189
Q

Axial Skeleton

A

made up of the 80 bones within the central core of your bod
* includes the skull, vertebral column (spine), and ribcage
* Axial Skeleton Forms the Midline of the Body
* Skull
* Cranial bones
* Facial bones
* Axial Skeleton: Vertebral Column

190
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

— comprised of the upper and lower extremities, which include the shoulder girdle and pelvis
* Includes the bones of the limbs (arms and legs) and the girdles that attach them to the axial skeleton.
* Appendicular Skeleton
* Includes body parts that attach to axial skeleton
* These are referred to as appendages
* Appendicular skeleton includes:
* Arms, hands, and pectoral girdle
* Legs, feet, and pelvic girdle

191
Q

Vertebral column

A

– Also called the backbone or spine
– Protects spinal cord
– Column of 33 irregular bones in the following regions:
 Cervical (neck): 7 vertebrae
 Thoracic (chest): 12 vertebrae
 Lumbar (small of the back): 5 vertebrae
 Sacral (sacrum): 5 fused vertebrae
 Coccygeal (coccyx): 4 fused vertebrae
– Intervertebral disks: cushion vertebrae; assist in movement and flexibility

192
Q

Herniated disk

A

– Also referred to as a “slipped disk”
– Sudden movement or impact may cause intervertebral disks to balloon outward compressing spinal nerves
– Disk may rupture
– Surgical repair may reduce flexibility
* Injury to vertebral column may damage or sever spinal cord
– May result in complete or partial paralysis

193
Q

Ribs and Sternum

A

Protecting the Chest Cavity
Ribs protect lungs and heart
– 12 pair
* 10 pair are attached to vertebrae in back, sternum in front
* Lowest two pair are “floating,” attached to vertebrae but Not attached to sternum

194
Q

Pectoral Girdle

A

Lends Flexibility to the Upper Limbs
* Permits a wide range of motion
* Connected to rest of body by muscles and tendons
* Can rotate upper arms almost 360 degrees
* Elbows bend and rotate, wrist and fingers can bend and rotate
* Opposable thumbs enable grasping and manipulating objects
* Susceptible to injury
– Dislocated shoulder
– Broken clavicle: one of the most common fractures
– Repetitive stress: carpal tunnel syndrome

195
Q

Pelvic girdle (hip)

A

– Supports weight of upper body
– Protects organs in pelvic cavity
– Attachment of legs

  • Remodeling of the pelvic girdle in females is triggered by hormones at puberty
  • Pelvic girdle in women
  • Broader
  • Shallower
  • Wider opening
  • These changes adapt pelvis for pregnancy and birth
196
Q

Diseases and Disorders of the Skeletal
System

A
  • Sprains
    – Stretched or torn ligaments
    – Heal slowly (few cells and poor blood supply)
  • Bursitis and tendinitis
    – Inflammation of bursae or tendons
  • Osteoporosis: excessive bone loss
  • Arthritis: inflammation of joints
    – Osteoarthritis
    – Rheumatoid arthritis
197
Q

Osteocyte

A

Mature bone cell

198
Q

Circulatory System Overview

A
  • Consists of: heart (pump), blood vessels and blood
  • Picks up nutrients from digestive system
  • Distributes nutrients throughout the body
  • Exchanges gases with respiratory system
    o Delivers O2 to every cell
    o Carries CO2 to lungs for removal
  • Carries wastes and excess water to urinary system
  • Carries metabolic wastes to liver for removal
  • Helps regulate body temperature
  • Contains specialized defensive cells of the immune system
199
Q

The Composition and Functions of Blood

A
  • Blood is a specialized connective tissue:
    o Formed elements: specialized cells and cell fragments
    o Liquid component: Plasma
  • Volume of blood in the body
    o Adult male: 5-6 L
    o Adult female: 4-5 L
  • Blood is five times more viscous than water
200
Q

Plasma

A
  • Plasma (makes up 55% of whole blood)
    o Water
    o Electrolytes (ions)
    o Proteins (albumins, globulins, clotting proteins)
    o Hormones
    o Gases
    o Nutrients and Waste
  • Plasma: liquid portion of the blood
  • 90% water
  • 10% dissolved solutes
    o Proteins
    o Hormones
    o Ions
    o Amino acids
    o Carbohydrates
    o Vitamins
    o Metabolic wastes
201
Q

Formed Elements

A
  • Formed elements (makes up 45% of whole blood)
    o Red Blood Cells
    o White Blood Cells
    o Platelets
202
Q

Red Blood Cells

A
  • Erythrocytes (red blood cells): 5 million/mm3
  • Functions: transport O2 and CO2
  • Lack a nucleus and other organelles
  • Packed with hemoglobin, which transports O2
  • Hemoglobin molecule includes four polypeptide chains and four heme groups that each have iron atoms to O2
  • Origin: stem cells in the bone marrow
  • Life span: 120 days in humans
203
Q

Hemoglobin

A
  • Factors affecting binding of hemoglobin
    o concentration: higher O2 promotes binding
     Lungs: O2 is high, O2 binds readily to hemoglobin
     Tissues: O2 is low, hemoglobin releases O2 to tissues
  • Hemoglobin measurement
    o Men: 14–18 gm% Women: 12–14 gm%
204
Q

Hematocrit

A
  • Hematocrit: the percentage of whole blood that consists of red blood cells
    o Men: 43–49% Women: 37–43%
  • Low hematocrit or hemoglobin may indicate anemia
  • High hematocrit may be a response to high elevation. Less O2 available in atmosphere – body adapts by making more red blood cells
  • Very high hematocrit is risky because of increased blood viscosity.
205
Q

Stem Cells

A
  • Stem cells in bone marrow divide continually throughout the life of an individual.
  • These stem cells produce all of the types of blood cells.
  • Stem cells that divide and produce blood cells are called hematopoietic stem cells.
206
Q

Erythroblasts

A

Immature red blood cells
- Erythroblasts transform into erythrocytes in the bone marrow prior to release into the blood.
- Erythroblasts fill with hemoglobin, mature into red blood cells, and discard their nucleus and organelles.

207
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Mature Red Blood Cells
Lack nucleus
- Aged RBCs are removed by macrophages (large phagocytic cells) in the liver and spleen.
- Iron and amino acids from hemoglobin are recycled.
- Heme (minus the iron), is converted to bilirubin, discarded through digestive tract.

208
Q

White Blood Cells

A

aka Leukocytes
- Produced by division of stem cells in bone marrow
- Functions
o Protect against infection
o Regulate the inflammatory reaction
- Two major categories
o Granular: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
o Agranular: lymphocytes and monocytes
- Most WBCs have a relatively short life span 1-20 days
- Circulating levels can rise quickly in response to infection
- May leave the blood for the interstitial fluid or lymph

209
Q

Platelets

A
  • Megakaryocytes arise from division of stem cells in bone marrow.
  • Megakaryocytes in bone marrow break into fragments called platelets.
  • Platelets play an important role in hemostasis.
    o If blood vessel is injured, platelets initiate the clotting process.
    o Platelets participate in the repair process.
210
Q

Hemostasis

A

Stopping Blood Loss
1. Vascular spasm: constriction of blood vessels to
reduce blood flow
2. Platelet plug formation: sealing of the ruptured
blood vessel
3. Coagulation: formation of a blood clot
 Blood changes from a liquid to a gel
 Complex series of reactions involving at least 12 different clotting proteins in the plasma

211
Q

Clotting Disorders

A
  • Bleeding disorder
    o Hemophilia: deficiency of one or more clotting proteins
  • Some medications interfere with hemostasis
    o Aspirin: blocks platelet clumping
    o Ibuprofen and naproxen may have a similar effect
212
Q

Blood Types

A
  • Blood transfusion: administration of blood directly into bloodstream of another person
  • Success depends on matching the blood type of the donor with that of the recipient
  • What are the different blood types?
    o ABO Blood Types (A, B, AB, O)
    o Rh (Rh-Positive) (Rh-Negative)
    o 8 different blood types
213
Q

Antigen

A

A defensive protein made by the body
- May be on a cell from another individual or on the cell of an invading microorganism
- Red blood cells from another person may have proteins on their surface (antigens) which are different than the molecules on our red blood cell surfaces
- If we receive a blood donation with blood that has these different antigens, our immune system may produce a serious potentially fatal transfusion reaction
- The antigen on the R B C surface determines the blood type
o Individuals have A and/or B or neither antigen on their red blood cell surfaces (A, B, A B, or O)
- Individuals have antibodies against the antigens N O T on their own red blood cells

214
Q

Antibody

A
  • Antibodies are gamma globulins, proteins found in the plasma
  • Many antibodies are directed against infectious microbes
  • Other antibodies may be directed against other antigens, such as those found on the cells of blood received in a blood transfusion
  • Antibodies may clump and inactivate antigen-bearing cells
215
Q

Blood Type # Can Receive…

A

Individual with Type A blood (has anti-B antibodies) can receive A or O
Individual with Type B blood (has anti-A antibodies) can receive B or O
Individual with Type A B blood (has neither antibody type) can receive AB, A, B, O
Individual with Type O blood (has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies) can receive O
 Can donate to A, B, AB

216
Q

Rh Factor

A

another antigen found on red blood cell surfaces
- 85% of Americans are R h-positive (have the antigen)
- 15% are R h-negative
o These individuals will respond to R h-positive blood by producing anti-R h antibodies
- Can be a problem when an R h-negative woman is pregnant with an R h-positive fetus.
- Mother may produce anti-R h antibodies that cross placenta and damage fetal red blood cells.
- Anti-R h antibodies from an R h negative mother may cause hemolytic disease of the newborn in the R h-positive baby.
- Risk is much higher for second and subsequent pregnancies.
- Can be prevented by giving mother R h o-G A M (anti-R h antibodies) during pregnancy and at delivery

217
Q

Arteries

A

o Transport blood away from the heart
o Transport blood under high pressure
o Are thick-walled

218
Q

Veins

A

o Store blood and return it to the heart
o Are thin-walled
 Blood flows through venules and
veins to the heart
* Serve as blood volume reservoir
* One-way valves permit only one-way blood flow

219
Q

Capillaries

A

o Exchange solutes and water with cells of the body
o Are microscopic
Where Blood Exchanges Substances with Tissues
* Structure
o Smallest blood vessels, microscopic
o Thin-walled: one cell layer thick
o Porous

220
Q

Arterioles

A

Smallest Arteries

221
Q

Precapillary Sphincters

A

Control blood flow from arterioles into capillaries

222
Q

Vasodilation

A

 Relaxation of vascular smooth muscle
 Increases blood flow to capillaries

223
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

 Contraction of vascular smooth muscle
 Decreases blood flow to capillaries

224
Q

Capillary beds

A

extensive networks of capillaries
* Function: selective exchange of substances with the interstitial fluid
o Beginning of capillary bed, fluid is filtered out of capillary to interstitial fluid, including oxygen, nutrients; urea and diffuse from cells back into the blood Driven by blood pressure
* Later in capillary bed, most fluid is reabsorbed by diffusion
o Driven by presence of protein in plasma but not in the interstitial fluid

225
Q

Heart Stats

A
  • Pump composed entirely of living cells and cellular materials
  • Output can vary from 5 liters to 25 liters of blood/minute
  • Heart rate at rest: 75 beats/minute
  • Heart rate can accelerate to over 200 beats/minute with exertion
  • Heart can beat on its own, yet heart rate can be modified by the nervous system
226
Q

Pericardium

A

Fibrous Sac that surrounds the heart
o Protects and anchors the heart

227
Q

Epicardium

A

outermost thin layer of epithelial and connective tissue
External Layer

228
Q

Myocardium

A

Thick layer of cardiac muscle (sandwiched by the epicardium and endocardium)
 Electrical signals flow directly from cell to cell
 This layer contracts when the heart beats
Middle Layer

229
Q

Endocardium

A

Innermost thin layer of endothelial tissue
 Continuous with lining of blood vessels
INNer layer

230
Q

Heart 4 Chambers

A
  • Four chambers
    o Two atria: upper chambers
    o Two ventricles: lower chambers
    o Septum: muscular partition separating right and left sides of the heart
231
Q

Heart 4 Valves

A

prevent backflow
o Two atrioventricular (AV) valves
 Tricuspid valve (right side)
 Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left side)
o Two semilunar valves
 Pulmonary valve
 Aortic valve

232
Q

Pulmonary Circuit

A

 Lungs
 Blood picks up O2 gets rid of CO2
1. Deoxygenated blood from the body travels through the vena cava to the right atrium of the heart.
2. Through the right A V valve into the right ventricle
3. Through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk, which divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries and travels to right and left lungs
4. Blood is oxygenated and CO2 is given up within pulmonary capillaries
5. Oxygenated blood travels through the pulmonary veins back to the heart, entering the left atrium

233
Q

Systemic Circuit

A

 Rest of body
 O2 is delivered, CO2 waste is picked up
1. Oxygenated blood flows from left atrium through left A V valve into left ventricle
2. Oxygenated blood continues from the left ventricle through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta
3. Through branching arteries and arterioles to tissues
4. Through the arterioles to capillaries
5. Within capillaries, nutrients and oxygen are delivered and wastes are picked up
6. From capillaries into venules and veins
7. To the vena cava and into the right atrium

234
Q

Atrial Systole

A

(0.1 second)
o Both atria contract
o A V valves open, semilunar valves are closed
o Ventricles fill

235
Q

Ventricular Systole

A

(0.3 second)
o Both ventricles contract
o A V valves close, semilunar valves open
o Blood is pushed into pulmonary trunk and aorta

236
Q

Diastole

A

(0.4 second)
o Both atria and ventricles relax
o Semilunar valves close

237
Q

LUB

A

closing of both A V valves during ventricular systole

238
Q

DUB

A

closing of both semilunar valves during ventricular diastole

239
Q

Sinoatrial node

A

small mass of cardiac cells in upper right atrium
o Cardiac pacemaker
o Initiates the heartbeat spontaneously
o Pace can be modified by nervous system
* Atrioventricular (A V) node
o Located between atria and ventricles
o Relays impulse

240
Q

Electrocardiogram (E K G/E C G)

A
  • A record of the electrical impulses in the cardiac conduction system
  • ECG involves placing electrodes on the skin at the chests, wrists, and ankles. The electrodes transmit the hearts electrical impulses, which are recorded as a continuous line on a screen or moving graph.
  • E K G s can detect
    o Arrhythmias
    o Ventricular fibrillation (rapid irregular ventricular contraction)
241
Q

Blood Pressure

A
  • The blood exerts force on the wall of the blood vessels
  • Blood pressure is highest in arteries, much less in capillaries, lowest in veins
  • Sphygmomanometer device used to measure blood pressure
    o Inflatable cuff is positioned over the brachial artery
    o Gauge or digital screen reports the pressure
  • Units: m m H g (millimeters of mercury)
242
Q

Systolic

A

highest pressure, as blood is ejected during ventricular systole
high point of pressure during cardiac cycle
o Systolic pressure <120 m m H g

243
Q

Diastolic

A

lowest pressure, as blood returns to the heart during ventricular diastole
low point of pressure during cardiac cycle
o Diastolic pressure <80 m m H g

244
Q

Hypertension

A

High Blood Pressure Can Be Dangerous
* Sustained elevation in blood pressure
o Systolic pressure ≥ 140 mm Hg
o Diastolic pressure ≥ 90 mm Hg
* Risk factor for cardiovascular disease
o Higher blood pressure causes greater strain on cardiovascular system
o Blood vessels react by becoming hardened and scarred
o Strain on heart from having to work harder

245
Q

Hypotension

A

When Blood Pressure Is Too Low
* Low blood pressure
* If low enough, may cause dizziness or fainting
* May follow abrupt changes in body position
o Standing up suddenly
* May result from excessive blood loss or fluid loss from burns

246
Q

Heart Attack

A
  • If blood flow to an area of the heart is impaired long enough – sudden death of an area of heart tissue due to oxygen starvation
  • Sudden death of the affected myocardium
  • Symptoms
    o Intense chest pain, sense of tightness or pressure on the chest that makes it hard to breath, and pain radiated down the left arm. Women tend to experience nausea and jaw and back pain.
  • Requires immediate medical attention
  • Treatment and/or prevention
    o Control of arrhythmias
    o Clot-dissolving medications
    o Coronary artery bypass graft (C A B G)—vein from leg is grafted in order to bypass obstructed coronary artery
247
Q

Congestive heart failure

A

weakness of heart causes fluid back-up in interstitial spaces
o Out of breath, swollen ankles, legs, neck veins
* Why does the heart weaken?
o Age, prior heart attacks, leaky heart valves, lung disease, uncontrolled hypertension
* Treatment
o Improve cardiac performance, efficiency
o Prevent accumulation of interstitial fluid
o Medications:
 Diuretics: remove excess fluids
 Medications to cause heart to beat more forcefully

248
Q

Embolism

A
  • A sudden blockage of a blood vessel by material floating in the bloodstream
  • Often a blood clot breaks away from a larger clot elsewhere
  • May be cholesterol deposits, tissue fragments, cancer cells, clumps of bacteria, bubbles of air
  • Locations
    o Pulmonary embolism—chest pain, shortness of breath
    o Cerebral embolism—may cause a stroke
    o Cardiac embolism—may cause a heart attack
249
Q

Stroke

A
  • Damage to part of brain caused by an interruption in blood supply
  • Two common causes
    o Embolism blocking a vessel
    o Rupture of a cerebral artery
  • Symptoms: depend on area of brain affected
  • Immediate medical care is crucial
    o If embolism, patient receives clot-dissolving drugs
    o If rupture, surgical repair is sometimes possible
  • Recovery may require extensive rehabilitation
250
Q

Pathogens

A

A subset of these microorganisms and viruses that cause disease
o Cancer cells

251
Q

VIruses

A

o Extremely small, much smaller than bacteria
o Living? …..
 Open to debate
 Unable to reproduce outside of a host cell
 No metabolic activity
o Structure
 Contain D N A or R N A, not both
 Nucleic acid is surrounded by a protein coat (capsid)
o Diseases caused by viruses include
 AIDS, COVID-19, hepatitis, encephalitis, rabies, influenza, colds, warts, chicken pox, Ebola hemorrhagic fever

252
Q

Epidemic

A

large outbreak of infectious disease in a particular community, population, or region

253
Q

Pandemic

A

epidemic that spreads to many countries or worldwide
* Example: COVID-19

254
Q

Lymphatic System

A

 1. Maintenance of blood volume in cardiovascular system
 2. Filtration of foreign material to defend against infection

255
Q

Lymphatic Vessels

A

o Network of vessels, similar in structure to veins
 Drain into cardiovascular system through right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct
o Lymph is a milky fluid containing
 White blood cells
 Proteins
 Fats
 Occasionally bacteria and viruses

256
Q

Lymph Nodes

A

o Lymph nodes are located at intervals along lymphatic vessels
o Nodes remove microorganisms, debris, and abnormal cells from lymph
o Small, 1 m m to 2.5 m m in size
o Nodes are composed of connective tissue, macrophages, and lymphoctyes
o Nodes act as filters

257
Q

Spleen

A

o Largest lymphatic organ
o Located in upper left abdominal cavity
o Two regions of spleen
 Red pulp
* Removes old and damaged red blood cells
* Temporary blood storage
 White pulp
* Contains lymphocytes, searching for pathogens
o Diseases that cause spleen enlargement
 Infectious mononucleosis, leukemia
o Spleen can be removed with minor medical impact

258
Q

Thymus Gland

A

 Located behind sternum, above heart
 Site of maturation of T cells (T lymphocytes)
 Largest, most active during childhood
 Atrophies with age

259
Q

Tonsils

A

 Masses of lymphatic tissue near the entrance to the throat
 Filter food and air entering the throat
 Sometimes become infected: tonsilitis

260
Q

Adenoids

A

 Lymphatic tissue near back of nasal passages
 Filter air

261
Q

First line of defense to keep pathogens out

A

 Skin—an effective deterrent
 Tears and saliva—contain lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme)
 Ear wax—entraps microorganisms
 Mucus—entraps microorganisms
 Coughing, sneezing
 Stomach—highly acidic, inhibits microorganisms
 Vomiting, urination, and defecation—remove microorganisms

262
Q

Probiotics

A

dietary supplements that contain living microorganisms, intentionally consumed to establish or restore beneficial microbiota

263
Q

Prebiotics

A

dietary supplements or foods that are consumed to encourage the growth of beneficial microbes in the gut

264
Q

Second Line of Defense

A

o Varied group of defenses that attack pathogens that have breeched the physical and chemical barriers of the first line of defense
o Include:
 Complement proteins
 Phagocytic cells
 Inflammation
 Natural killer cells

265
Q

Complement system

A

o Includes at least 30 proteins that circulate in the blood in an inactive state
* When activated by invading microorganisms, the activated complement proteins defend by:
o Creating holes in the invading microorganisms
o Enhancing inflammation, which attracts phagocytes
o Directly lysing invading microorganisms

266
Q

Phagocytes

A

o Phagocytes are white blood cells that engulf and digest foreign cells through the process of phagocytosis
o Some phagocytes are constantly on the move seeking out invaders; others take up residence in lymph nodes, spleen, lungs, other tissues

267
Q

Neutrophils

A
  • “first reponders”
  • Initiate inflammatory cascade
  • Self destruct after eating microorganisms (pus)
268
Q

Macrophages

A

Form monocytes that leave the vascular system and enter tissue fluids
* Can be fixed or free in the body
* Can eat microorganisms over and over

269
Q

Inflammatory response

A
  • Inflammation: Redness, Warmth, Swelling, Pain
  • triggered by tissue injury
    o Signs: Redness, Warmth, Swelling, Pain
    o Purpose: dispose of cellular debris and pathogens, and initiate tissue repair
    o Process:
     Injured cells release histamine and other inflammatory mediators
     Inflammatory mediators cause increased blood flow to the area and attract phagocytic cells
     Phagocytic cells engulf invading microbes and clean up debris
     Repair mechanisms are initiated
    o Mass cells: in connective tissues
270
Q

Natural Killer Cells

A

are a type of lymphocytes
o Able to recognize:
 Virus-infected host cells
 Tumor (cancer) cells (they can kill your own cells that become cancerous)
o Contact their target cells:
 Make a hole in the target cell membrane or can engulf them
 Release enzymes into the target cell to destroy it

271
Q

Pyrogens

A

substances that produce a fever
o Pyrogens cause the brain to reset the body’s thermostat at a higher temperature
o Fever’s defensive properties:
 Makes the body less hospitable to pathogens
 Enhance body’s defenses

272
Q

Third line of defense

A

 The immune response
 Characteristics:
* Recognizes and targets specific pathogens and foreign substances
* Has “memory”—“remembers” initial exposure and responds more quickly and aggressively on subsequent exposures
 Able to distinguish between:
* “Self” cells and foreign, “nonself” invaders
* Healthy cells and abnormal (tumor) cells

273
Q

Antigen Immune Response

A

foreign substance that triggers an immune response
 Usually protein or polysaccharide
* Often on outer surface of an invading bacteria or virus
 M H C (major histocompatibility complex) proteins
* Self-antigens that are on human cell surfaces, enabling recognition of “self”
* Enable immune system to distinguish “self” from “nonself”
* Your body recognizes these as uniquely “you” but they would appear foreign (antigenic) to someone else’s immune system

274
Q

Lymphocyte

A

a type of white blood cell, originating from stem cells in the bone marrow

275
Q

B Lymphocyte

A

Antibody-mediated immunity

276
Q

Antibodies

A

proteins made by descendants of B lymphocytes that bind with specific antigens
* Have after first infection
 Active against viruses, bacteria, and soluble foreign molecules
 Identify microorganisms
 B memory cells remember these organisms
 Tag the specific microorganism, can have multiple antibodies on the same organism
* Can clump multiple of the microorganisms together “big blob”
 Circulate in blood and lymph, also found in mucous secretions and breast milk
 Bind to the specific antigen that triggered their production forming antigen-antibody complexes
* May cause agglutination (clumping) of antigens
* May “tag” the antigen and promote its recognition and removal by phagocytic cells
* May activate complement, which then lyses the antigen-bearing cell
* May neutralize viruses, bacteria, and toxins by blocking their ability to bond to host cell receptors

277
Q

T Lymphocyte

A

Cell-mediated immunity
 Directly attack foreign cells or infected “self” cells
 Active against cancer cells, cells with “nonself” M H C
 Responsible for cells, typically tumor causing or cancer causing “cells gone rogue”

278
Q

T Cells

A

 Originate from stem cells in the bone marrow
 Mature in the thymus
o T-cells located in the plasma

279
Q

Helper T Cells

A

 Secrete cytokines, which stimulate other immune system cells
 Play a key role in directing the immune response
 Are targets of H I V infection

280
Q

Cytotoxic T Cells

A

 Directly attack and destroy abnormal (tumor or viral-infected) cells and foreign cells
 Host cells that are cancerous (tumor cells)
 Transplanted organs or tissue (if not appropriately matched)
o Cytotoxic T cell binds to target cell
o Cytotoxic T cell secretes two proteins which together destroy the target cell
 Perforin: forms a pore in the target cell plasma membrane
* Perforin pokes a hole in the target cell
o Granzyme: enters the pore and digests and kills the target cell

281
Q

Memory T Cells

A

 Reactivate during later exposures
 Protects against future infections
 Remembers infections from before so can protect better in the future

282
Q

Primary immune response

A

 Occurs on first exposure to antigen
 Characteristics:
* Lag time (delay) of 3-6 days for antibody production
* Antibody production peaks at 10-12 day

283
Q

Secondary Immune Response

A

 Occurs on second or subsequent exposures to antigen
* Minimal lag time (hours)
* Antibody level (titer) rises much more quickly
* Much more antibody is produced
* Antibody levels stay elevated longer
 Due to long-lived memory cells produced during primary response

284
Q

Active Immunization

A
  • Intentionally expose individual to a form of the antigen that doesn’t produce disease (vaccine) – weakened or dead
  • Also known as vaccination
  • Vaccine may be:
    o Killed or inactivated pathogen
    o Attenuated (weakened) pathogen
    o Some part or component of the pathogen (subunit)
    o Piece of nucleic acid (D N A or R N A) that encodes an antigen from a pathogen
  • Recipient will develop a primary immune response including memory cells
  • Recipient is now primed for a strong secondary response when exposed to the pathogen in the future
285
Q

Passive Immunization

A
  • No vaccines
  • Administer protective antibodies to an individual from a doner
286
Q

Antibiotics

A

o Antibiotics kill bacteria or inhibit their growth
 Antibiotics are selectively toxic for bacteria by targeting features of bacterial cells that are different from eukaryotic cells
* Example: penicillin inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis
 Narrow spectrum antibiotics: effective against a small group of bacteria
 Broad spectrum antibiotics: effective against a wider variety of bacteria
* May have negative impact on normal microbiota
 Antibiotics are not effective against viruses

287
Q

Allergies

A

hypersensitivity reactions
 Inappropriate response to an allergen
 Allergen: any substance (antigen) that causes an allergic reaction (not a pathogen, but the body reacts as though it is a pathogen)
 Examples of allergens
* Pollen
* Mold spores
* Dust mites
o Treatment of allergies
 Antihistamines – treatment of mild to moderate reactions
 Epinephrine injection – treatment of anaphylactic shock
 Allergy shots

BIOL 2005 (1 decks)

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