Midterm Review Flashcards
What are the two roots of psychology?
Philosophy and natural sciences
What early ideas have influenced modern psychology?
Greek philosopher (observation has natural explanations), British empiricism (knowledge comes from experience), Physicans (brain –> mind), Scientists (Each nerve –> one type of information), Hermann von Helmholtz (study of reaction time), Gustav Fechner (identify softest sound –> mental process)
Who is the “father of modern psychology” and what is his idea?
Wilhelm Wundt, Structuralism (further spread by Edward Tichener) –> break mind into smallest elements of mental experience
What is the first psychological eperiment?
Reaction time study by Wundt.
Stimulus –> Press a key
Different stimuli –> Press different buttons (Choice reaction time) [Stroop Task]
What is an opposition to structuralism?
Gestalt psychology –> Breaking “whole” perception would lose important psychological information
(Max Wertheimer)
What is functionalism and who is it proposed by?
The idea that behaviors are purposeful and lead to survival (asking “why”)
William James
What is behaviorism and who are some of its followers?
Study observable, measurable behaviors.
Ivan Pavlov (Classical conditioning, salivating dogs)
John B. Watson (Advertisement, “Little Albert”)
Edward Thorndike (Effect of consequence on behavior)
B. F. Skinner (Skinner Box)
What is the current view of behaviorism?
Should not solely study observable behaviors.
Cognitive revolution –> mental processes can be studied scientifically (Mathematics & Computer Science)
What are the five perspectives of psychology?
Biological/Evolutionary, Cognitive (mental processes, e.g.: thinking, problem solving, information processing), social/personality (effect of presence of others & individual differences), developmental (across lifespan), clinical (disorder and wellbeing)
What are the research methods commonly used in psychology?
Observation, survey, correlation, experiment
What are the pros and cons of observation?
Pros: natural, no interruption, cheap, useful for forming hypothesis
Cons: bias, no strong claim, no casual relationship
What are the pros and cons of survey?
Pros: rich data, cheap, useful as initial evidence
Cons: Bias, no casual relationship
What are some biases involved in survey?
Remebered vs. Experienced Self (Electric Shock –> Mild electric shock in the end)
Accessibility (Media Bias –> Train or airplane is safer)
Context (Wording –> Sexual harrassment survey/working atmosphere survey)
What are the pros and cons of correlation?
Similar to survey
Cannot suggest causal relationship
Bi-directionality & Possibility of Third Factor
What are components of experimental procedure?
Randomization --> Randomly assigned to experimental/control group Independent variable (manipulated, "cause") Dependent variable (measured, "effect")
What is reliability?
Whether the experiment can be repeated and yield consistent results
What is validity?
Internal: only the manipulated variable could have produced the results
External: whether the results can be generalized beyond the study
What are some threats to validity?
WEIRD population (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) –> Fail to consider cultural diversity
What is an experiment conducted in real world?
Field Experiment
What is cross-sectional study?
Gather groups of people of varying ages to study
Cohort Effect: Born in different time period
What is longitudinal study?
A group of people observed for a long period of time.
No cohort effect, too costly
What is mixed longitudinal study?
A group from a range of ages observed for a limited period of time.
(Reduced cohort effect, less costly)
What is behavioral genetics?
The study of the strength of genetic influenced on behavior
Heritability: likelihood that variations across individuals are due to genetics
What are candidate genes?
Genes that affect a condition more than others.
Molecular genetics
What is functional genetics?
Uses genomewide association studies to study the effect of the genome on individual traits
What is epigenetics?
Studies how genes have different effects in different situations.
What are some examples of how genes affect behavior?
5-HTT gene: Short allele –> sensitive to negaitve emotions –> more likely to develop emotional problems after being bullied
Smaller hippocampus size –> vulnerable trait for PTSD (Twin study –> War does not change hippocampus size)
What is optogenetics?
The technology to use light to control living tissues, can be used to monitor individual neuron.
How do males and females differ in mate-seeking?
Female: long-term, more investment, resource/commitment
Male: Short-term, more mates, fertility
What are some studies related to mate-seeking?
Waist hip ratio has more effect on coffee conversation and dating, while income has more effect on long-term relationship and marriage.
Expansive posture –> more attraction (field experiment)
Language style matching
What is the structure of a neuron?
Dendrites (receiving) –> Cell body/soma (processing) –> Axon (sending)
What are some functions of glia?
Structural matrix, body functions, clean up debris of damaged neuron, blood-brain barrier (prevent toxins from entering), myelin (fast signaling)
Forms scar tissue when damage is in CNS, helps damaged axon grow in PNS
Describe the process of generating a neural impulse.
Resting potential (negative interior) --> depolarized --> threshold reached --> ion channels open --> action potential --> refractory period Myelinated axon: flows beneath neurons, action potential at nodes of ranvier
What are some important neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, endorphin, glutamate, GABA
What are the functions of acetylcholine? What substance acts on it? What diseases are associated with it?
Movement, memory, autonomous nervous system
Nicotine
Alzheimer’s disease
What are the functions of epinephrine?
Arousal
What are the functions of norepinephrine? What diseases are associated with it?
Arousal and vigilance
Bipolar disorder & PTSD
What are the functions of dopamine? What substances act on it? What diseases are associated with it?
Movement, planning, reward
Cocaine & methamphetamine
Parkinson’s disease,schizophrenia, ADHD
What are the functions of serotonin? What diseases are associated with it?
Sleep, appetite, mood, aggression
Depression
What are the functions of endorphins? What substances act on it?
Pain relief
Morphine, heroin, oxycodone
What are the functions of glutamate? What substances act on it?
Excitation of brain activity
Reduced by alcohol
What are the functions of GABA? What substances act on it?
Inhibition of brain activity
Increased by alcohol
Which neurotransmitter does caffeine act on?
Adenosine
What are the functions of the spinal cord?
Sensory information, command to muscles, reflexes
What are the parts of the brainstem?
Medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, reticular formation
What are the parts of the limbic system?
Thalamus, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, hippocampus, cingulate cortex, amygdala, nucleus accumbens
What are the functions of medulla?
Heart rate, breathing, blood pressure
What are the functions of pons?
Sleep, arousal, facial expressions
What are the functions of cerebellum?
Balance, motor coordination
What are the functions of midbrain?
Reflexes, movement, pain (endorphin receptor), major source of serotonin and norepinephrine nearby
What are the functions of reticular formation?
Management of level of arousal –> wake/deep sleep
What are the functions of thalamus?
Sensation (sensory information–>thalamus–>cortex), memory, state of consciousness
What are the functions of hippocampus?
Formation of long-term memory
What are the functions of cingulate cortex?
Anterior: autonomic system, decision, emotion, anticipation of reward, empathy
Posterior: memory and visual processing
What are the functions of amygdala?
Sensation –> emotional/motivational output, fear and aggression
What are the functions of nucleus accumbens?
Reward and pleasure, social inclusion
What are the four lobes?
Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
What are the functions of the frontal lobe?
Thinking/reasonging/control/attention
Primary motor cortex: voluntary control over movement
Broca’s area: production of speech
Prefrontal cortex: planning, attention, judgement
Orbitofrontal cortext: emotional life, social behavior
What are the functions of the occipital lobe?
Primary visual cortex
Connects to temporal –> recognize objects
Connects to parietal –> process movement
What are the functions of the temporal lobe?
Visual/auditory processing, conscious awareness of things
Primary auditory cortex
Wernicke’s area –> meaningful speech and comprehension
What are the functions of the parietal lobe?
Motor coordination, visual-spatial processing
Primary somatosensory cortex: localize touch, pain, skin temperature, body position
Complex processing of vision –> movement
What are conditions associated with damage to the frontal lobe?
Alien hand syndrome Phineas Gage (impulsive behavior)
What are conditions associated with damage to the occipital lobe?
Blind sight
Cannot see but will avoid obstruction
What are conditions associated with damage to the temporal lobe?
Agnosia
Apperceptive: cannot reproduce drawing
Associative: can reproduce drawing, but cannot recognize
Prosopagnosia: cannot recognize face
What are conditions associated with damage to the parietal lobe?
Neglect –> not aware of a part of the world
What connects the left and right hemispheres?
Corpus Callosum
What are the differences between left and right hemisphres?
LH –> Language
RH –> Face recognition, attention (damage result in neglect, not seeing part of the picture)
What is sensation?
Transforming external physical stimuli into neural stimuli (transduction)
What is perception?
Interpretation of sensory information
What is sensory adaptation?
Reduced response to an unchanging stimulus
What is threshold?
Absolute: smallest possible stimuls that can be detected at least 50% of the time
Difference: smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected at least 50% of the time
What is hit?
Stimulus present & detected
What is miss?
Stimulus present but not detected
What is false alarm?
Stimulus not present but detected
What is correct rejection?
Stimulus not present & not detected
What is the function of the conea?
Bends light to form an image on the retina
What is the pupil?
Opening formed by muscles of iris, which adjusts opening in response to light & autonomic system
What is the function of the lens?
Focuses light onto the retina, adjusts focus for near/far objects
What is the function of the retina? What are its components?
Network of neurons specialized for processing of light.
Fovea: middle of retina, specialized for fine detail
Rods: more sensitive to light, excel in dim light, more prevalent in the periphery, less accurate in detail (converge more)
Cones: needs bright light to function, sharp image, color, prevalent in the center, converge less
What is the visual pathway?
Rods/cones –> Optic nerve (blindspot, no receptor) –> optic chiasm (left visual field goes to right hemisphre and vice versa) –> Optic tracts –> Thalamus
The information goes to amygdala (quick emotional judgement), primary visual cortex, hypothalamus (sleep/wake cycle), midbrain (visually guided reflexes)
What is the structure of the cochlea?
Three parallel chambers divided by mambrane.
Cochlear duct –> separated by basilar membrane
Organ of Corti –> on top of basilar membrane (affected by its movement) –> hair cells bent –> transduce sound
Release of neurotransmitter–>auditory nerve–>medulla–>midbrain (reflexes)–>thalamus–>primary auditory cortex
What is the vestibular system?
Information about body position and movement.
Middle ear (fluid, hair cell bent when the head moves), detects position relative to ground, acceleration, rotation
Middle ear–>medulla–>thalamus–>primary somatosensory cortex–>primary motor cortex
What is the default mode network? What is it consisted of?
Maintains a level of unconscious/background activity, active when the person’s mind is not active, prepares for conscious thought.
Medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, inferior parietal lobule, medial parietal cortex, lateral parietal cortex, lateral temporal cortex
What is the EEG pattern when a person is awake?
Alert: Beta waves (rapid, irregular, low-amplitude, 15-30 cycles per second)
Relaxed: Alpha waves (slower, larger, more regular, 9-12 cycles per second)
Processing stimuli: Gamma waves (very rapid, >30 cycles per second)
What are the characteristics of N1 sleep?
Similar to waking, drowsy people.
Theta waves (4-7 cycles/second)
Unaware of being asleep
What are the characteristics of N2 sleep?
Sleep spindles and K complex, reduced heart rate and muscle tension, less responsiveness
What are the characteristics of N3 sleep?
Delta waves (1-4 cycles/second), further reduction of hear rate and muscle tension, low responsiveness
What are the characteristics of REM sleep?
Brain activity resemling waking, rapid eye movement, active sympathetic system, paralysis of muscles
What are some sleep disorders?
Insomnia (onset: unable to go to sleep, maintenance: interrupted sleep/early waking) Night terror (occurs in N-REM sleep, acutely distressed) REM behavioral disorder (act out REMsleep, violent, intense, predictor for Parkinson's disease)
What are the major theories regarding emotion? (5)
James-Lange Theory (Stimulus–>Physical Response–>Emotion)
Cannon-Bard Theory (Stimulus generates physical response & emotion)
Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factor Theory (Stimulus–>Physical Response–>Cognitive Reappraisal–>Emotion)
Somatovisceral afference model of emotion (Physical responses differ in specificity)
Appraisal Theory/Lazarus Theory (Stimulus–>Cognitive Reappraisal–>Physical Response–>Emotion)
What are two ways of classifying emotions?
Discrete (face action coding system, each feature corresponds to an emotion)
Dimensional (Intense/mild, pleasant/unpleasant)
What is a study that supports the two-factor theory?
Four groups: adrenaline/placebo, informed/uninformed
Informed –> feel less euphoric/angry about the films, attribute physical response to drug
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law
Simple tasks: higher arousal –> higher performance
Difficult task: arousal should not be too high to ensure optimal performance
Emotions –> beneficial level of arousal
What is achivement motivation?
Desire to excel/outperform others
What are Carol Dweck’s ideas?
Growth/malleable mindset (focus on process-->success) Fixed mindset (avoid challenges)
What is Maslow’s hierachy of needs? How is it modified by some?
Lower levels met first before pursuing higher levels (prioritizing motives)
Physiological needs–>safety–>love–>esteem–>self-actualization
Modification: self-actualization changed to mate acquisition–>mate retention–>parenting (to fit evolutionary perspective)
