Midterm Review Flashcards
- Johannes Von Thünen
1826, Creator of “Central Place Theory.” Contemporary of Marx—with the rise of more industrialized cities, Von Thunen theorized about new industrialized society. First zone—intensive agriculture, orchard, market gardens. Next is extensive agriculture, wheat. Third zone is livestock raising. Fourth is furs and timber. Finally wilderness. Trying to give us a geography of capitalism, even if oversimplified—does not take into account physical geography and viability of the land, does not take into account city growth. Uses problematic conceptions like “wilderness.” A conception of nature and city that are distinct.
- Pangaea
200 million years BCE–Used to be for a long time that survey textbooks of American history would talk with 1776 (Nationalism closely tied to history). Same problem with 1492 (suggests that history arrived with Europeans). “Politics of Time.” Jacoby argues that we need to back even further—200 million years to Pangea. Coincides with the Mesozoic period—rise of mammalian species and the development of birds—Unique species begin to develop on increasingly unique ecosystems as Pangea separates. Ships and airplanes “knitting” Pangea back together. Long process of disengagement is contrasted with a quick pulling back together
- Rice
Post 1492, African indigenous rice cultivation helping to shape New World food systems. Food to fuel the armies that perpetuated the slave trade, feed enslaved people on their journey, and feed those who fled to wetlands to escape enslavement, which granted them a trade commodity to exchange with slavers for improved farming implements.
- Pleistocene Extinctions
-Pleistocene Era (1.8 million to 11,000 years BCE)
Pleistocene Megafauna
First humans to set foot would have encountered an environment far different than our current environment. Tundra or tyga, a perfect environment for megafauna. One argument states that the reason we have so many forests now is because there is no longer megafauna to keep them down. Preying on these animals were big cats—mostly lions and even a cheetah like animal. The American antelope is the second fastest animal on earth—the reason is that they used to have to run away from cheetahs. Selection for gigantism and slow-breeding. Pleistocene extinction (10,000 years ago) 75% of the megafauna go extinct. South American 79% extinct, Australia 83% extinct. What happened here? Overkill theory (humans over hunted) vs the overchill theory (misnomer, actually climate warming).
Overkill (Paul Martin): “Blitzkrieg” theory: “man and man alone, is responsible for the extinction.” Thinks that killing for eating would take roughly 300 years to kill off all megafauna. Also suggests that animals in africa co-evolved with humans and therefore were better able to deal with them—learned to weary of human beings. Human arrival aligns with the decline of megafauna in Australia, North America, and Madagascar. Clearest case where we see this is in New Zealand. (Cuba had giant sloths up to 4,000 years ago, and disappeared shortly after human arrival)—Similar situation with Wrangel Island (NE Russia). However, this does not explain a similar extinction in microfauna. Martin didn’t say much about climate. Most of evidence for overhunting comes from islands, Martin thinks of a continent as a big isolated island.
At the end of the Pleistocene, a rapid increase in warming. The grasslands would have moved further north where there is less sun—decrease in grass would lead to a decrease in megafauna, especially since they reproduce very slowly. Prior to this, mammoths had been able to survive climate shifts, so why was this one was different. Other possibilities: Fire brought over by humans (one of the oldest ways that humans have used to manage the landscape).
- Neolithic Revolution
Historical paradox: Roughly 10,000-5,000 BCE. Agricultural Hearths: Middle East (10,000 BCE); South China (8,500 BCE); Central Mexico (7,000 BCE); Andes (5,000 BCE); Subsaharan Africa (5,000 BCE) Agricultural Hearth: After the break up of Pangea, the type of agriculture is different around the world, but the shift mostly happened around the same time.
h/g didn’t want to do agriculture because it was much more labor intensive (example of a society that only required four hours to gather what they needed)—time is the fundamental non-renewable resource. We have a lot more stuff but a lot less time. Also, agriculture is not as stable—radically simplifying an ecosystem that had potentially hundreds of plants down to one or two. Crop-failure (Irish Potato Famine) is disastrous. Conversely, a h/g would just eat whatever is available at the time. Also, only one harvest per year, so the problem becomes how to preserve and maintain security for the food (from pests and other peoples). A shift to agriculture also precipitated a shift in the height of people (made them shorter—5-10 to 5-3). Now we’re catching back up to where we were before. (think of it like the Garden of Eden—Adam and Eve could walk around and pick/eat whatever they want, but then are punished with hard labor of the soil once exiled).
First hypothesis agues that (sedentarism predated shift to agriculture) there was a micro population crisis and agriculture was a way to deal with this. Also an argument that there was a macro population crisis. Estimated 2-4 million people at the end of the Pleistocene, which explodes with the agricultural revolution. A transition in the “mode of production.” Argument that women were the first farmers, instrumental in its development—the men would hunt and the women would cultivate crops
Second hypothesis is that animals evolved with humans. (Humans not the only ones to farm—ant and fungus “coevolution”—fungus has evolved to be completely dependent on ants for its survival. Is is possible to think of human Agriculture as a type of this mutualism?
- Pig Riots
What pig owners lacked in political representation, they made up for in numbers—and vehemence. Every time the city sent hog-catchers into poor neighborhoods, riots erupted, and assault of fists and spoiled vegetables that followed sent them fleeing empty-handed.
One critical step was empowering the government to enforce laws. In 1845, the city finally established a professional police force. So when a nasty cholera epidemic swept the island in 1849—whipping up fears that the pigs were spreading the sickness—the police rounded up thousands of hogs and drove them north of the city. The construction of Central Park—a beacon of healthfulness hailed as “the lungs of the city”—in 1857 forced a lot of pigs even further north. By 1860, pigs were banished to the shantytowns and sleepy hamlets north of 86th Street.
- Horse
The Horse Discovers America (1680).
Horse used for military (trained to trample) as well as transportation. Spanish were aware of their advantage and ventured to keep them out of native hands. California, horsed and cattle brought by Spanish in 1700s? increased grazing pressure and the grass changed from the natural grass to types brought from the Mediterranean. When the Spanish settled San Francisco (1776), they had to kill 30,000 feral horses because they were keeping them from planting fields. (See heat map for Mustangs and Burros). Again, the Spanish try to control the horse, but is thought that 1680 is when they lose control during the Pueblo Revolt of the same year—taking horses and spreading, horses escaping. 1776 can be seen as an American revolution as the Northern Great Plains tribes encounter the horse—vastly changing the Americas. The horse allows them to challenge European invasion—a type of ecological resistance. (Think also of the Sheep and their incorporation into Dine society) Introduction of these animals in many cases enriched native societies.
The population prior to the arrival of the horse on the Great Plains was sparse. Hunting bison difficult, had to sneak up on, or create corrals to chase them into. Soil is incredible rich, but trapped under dense roots of the grass. Before the horse, the domestic animals that the natives had was the dog. Dog at most can carry 50 lbs in travwa. Also, dogs eat what humans eat—meat. Usually the responsibility of the women to take care of the dogs, each family required an estimated 20 dogs to get things done. This is why indigenous peoples embraced the horse so quickly. In many indigenous languages, the word for horse is derived from dog, since it was accomplishing similar functions. Comanche language: “magic dog” and Lakota: “sacred dog”—a vast improvement over the dog: doesn’t eat meat, it its grass, much stronger, carrying 200lbs on its back (dogs top out at 50). Have more endurance so can follow bison across the plains. You can also hunt on horseback and the horse could help you carry back the kills. Can also hunt the Antelope and Elk. Don’t develop shoeing, but develop moccasins. Appaloosa is developed by the Nez Pierce. Horse also allows for significant population increase on the Great Plains. It’s thought the population may have doubled in a generation. Western Sioux, 5,000 in 1804, by the 1850 that had become 25,000 (doubling every generation). Gender roles changed, a move away from being agriculturalist to primarily focussing on hunting, women had been the primary agriculturalists, so this shift could have constituted a decrease in status. Also tanning hides was labor intensive and usually done by women, some tribes saw an increase in polygamy due to this. Also Indian conflict from tribes trying to control the bison increased. A type of moveable property, the horse became a target for raids. If you don’t have horses, it puts you a really dependent place in Indian society. Estimated that a single family would require 15 horses. Population of horses on great plains increases rapidly—at odds with times of the year with minimal grass (late fall, winter). Also, due to raids, you don’t want your herds to far from you. A lot of competition between the bison and people/horses for winter grazing sites. Cottonwood tree leaves and bark could be eaten and after the white conquest, the cottonwood begins to come back.
Indigenous people would set fire in early spring to help bring out an earlier and thicker grass than would have otherwise been present. In archaeological record, you can see a layer of ash from the increase in fires to control the land. (roughly 1840s, guns show up on the Great Plains).
The adaptation of the Horse. Outside of the basic parameters of feeding the horse, different societies incorporated them differently
Lakota or Dakota “Allies” the Seven Council Fires. Pushed out of the great lakes by the Chippewa/Objibwe because they were trading with the French and received firearms earlier. In Minnesota, they were farmers and once they encounter the horse, they switch back to hunting (very rare in history). They come to contend with the Pawnee.
Pawnee “Men of Men” usually settled in river valleys on the plains. Pawnees maintain their agriculture, but expand their hunting, enriching their society in the process.
- Land Ordinance
1785, How is nature defined here? On a very material level, I could be said that nature was always there—dogs, hogs, cows, etc. More a replacement of one way of thinking about nature with another way of thinking about nature with the rise of the middle and upper classes. White American thought as a nation of agrarian people. The idea of a farming society in American History. Ideology that is literally writing itself on the land through expressions like Central Park. Land Ordinance of 1785–land cessions to Federal government to give to white farmers. Grid system still exists today, just look down while in an airplane.
- Cholera
1832, Cholera arrives in 1832, spread by a bacterium that originated in India. As the British begin to invade India, they begin to spread cholera to Europe and the Americas. One more affliction that is devastating to indigenous peoples. Cholera travels by the fecal-oral route, causes severe dehydration and turns the skin blue. Very high mortality rate. Very much a disease of the poor, “poor man’s plague.” No known evidence that any one type of person has any tolerance to it. If you are robust and well fed, you are able to deal with it better, however, if you are mal-nourished, it is much more difficult to handle. 100 people a day dying in NYC at its height. 1800s no knowledge of germs, so it is associated with poor immigrants, alcohol consumption, and smells. Many of the immigrants at this time were Irish and German. Seen by some as the hand of god cleaning out the city. Not until 1854, that a London scientist figures out it is carried in drinking water. Not until the 1880s is the bacteria identified. Cholera linked to anxieties about immigration at the time.
In 1835, NYC begins to build its first aqueduct, biggest undertaking (except Central Park) in the 19th century.
- Smallpox
Smallpox discovers America. Europeans had a disease advantage in the Americas, but not so in Africa and Asia. You don’t get the scramble for Africa until Europeans develop ways to deal with the local diseases. First diseases to arrive in the Americas are less—diarrhea, dysentery. Smallpox doesn’t discover America until 1518 in Hispaniola—a two decade delay. (Syphillus is one possible example of a disease moving the other way.
Smallpox: Probably one of the largest killers in human history. Can be infected from exhaled air or from scabs. In many cases, you die from internal hemorrhaging. How disorienting and terrifying would be for indigenous communities who never experienced. Physical scars also remain if you survive. Five to Six million Taino people almost brought to extinction in Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and DR). From there is spread throughout the Americas. How was Cortez able to conquer the Aztec Empire—one of the most densely populated places on earth at the time. These diseases spread further and faster than the “European Frontier.” Populations are shrinking, but are being thrown into complete chaos—Pizarro’s conquest of the Incan Empire was helped by finding them in civil war thought to be caused by Small Pox instability. Kiowa story about smallpox: Saynday and the anthropomorphization of smallpox. Thoughts of Europeans having some type of spiritual power and that’s how they avoid smallpox, could have influenced conversion or synchratization of natives to Christianity. Pilgrim “The good hand of our God has favored our undertaking,” finding cleared plots of land ready for planting (the indigenous peoples having succumbed to disease). The “vanishing Indian” trope—they can’t handle European civilization. “Widowed land” instead of “virgin land.” Important thing is that when Europeans show up, they don’t find untouched peoples, but peoples who had already been ravaged by disease. Once people began to realize the impact of disease, the initial estimates of native populations seems like a huge underestimate, but how do come up with a more accurate number? Carry capacity of the environment? Archeological studies? Generally accepted number is around five million (compared to an initial estimate of 2 million). By 1990, only 200,000 in the 1990 census, down from the potential high estimate of 18 million. The largest demographic catastrophe in human history.
- Ghost Dance
-The Ghost Dance and Wounded Knee (1890)“Feathered Shield” quote. Partially in response to this close self identification with the bison, and Natives moved to reservations, you see the rise of the Ghost Dance (white term) religion—originally Paiute. If you intensify certain rituals, then time will run back, the Europeans would be gone, and the bison would return. A dancing ritual where you go into a trance and see this new world, if you go long enough then time will reverse. This causes much distress for reservation authorities—helps lead to Wounded Knee (NOT a battle). More the first massacre in the Reservation Era.
Great white conservationists model saves the bison—Madison Grant—founder the the American Bison Society. As early as 1870s, you have reports of Native efforts to save the Bison. See Michel Pablo, Charles A. Allard. In Canada. The National Bison Range is a response to this. Flathead tribe helped to bring this about, but it is part of their reservation land that is used for the National Range. This is the source of most of the bison in America currently (roughly 500,000). Vast majority is privately owned rather than public or tribal. 35,000 per year are currently killed for food. “The idea of the Buffalo Commons” (1930-2010) Trying to create a bison range on the Great Plains. See Intertribal Buffalo Council.
- Beaver Wars
Late 17th century. “The Commodification of Nature.” Jacoby: IPs often looked at like a single block, must look at specific situations. Prior to 1492, no evidence of beaver over-hunting. Even after 1492, there is evidence that certain tribes did not over-hunt the beaver. E.g., Algonquin rotating which part of their territory they would hunt, as well as other control methods. In Pawnee society, French traders could only trade with the leaders, this kept different groups from being pitted against one another, and also allowed them to ban the sale of alcohol. Jacoby argues that the reverberations of colonialism that causes indigenous peoples to over-hunt the beaver. To become a leader in Indigenous society, you had to be a good gift-giver. Internal disruption alters the governance. External disruption is the increase of warring between indigenous tribes. Triggers an arms race among indigenous communities—the way to get the guns is to trade beaver. (See beaver wars in the late 17th century) Ojibwe used weapons to claim beaver territory and pushed out the Lakota. Refugee exigencies of Iriquois and Ojibwe pushing others out led Natives to begin to over-hunt the beaver for goods and weapons.
Originally, the IPs are in a powerful trade position, but once the beaver population collapses, they only thing left to trade is your land. As the animal population shifted in N. America, the power relationship between Natives and Europeans changed.
- Neolin
18th Century, “Revitalization Movements.” There’s a lot of these revitalization movements in the Ohio are in the 18th century. Lenape Neolin receives a vision that you have the ills of the world has been caused by Lenapes allowing Europeans to stay on their land. Neolin preaches that European trade goods be thrown out and no further trade carried out. Neolin gives up alcohol. Is Neolin a traditionalist? Or is his creation of an Indigenous identity make him something else? Much different than the idea of Natives as passive consumers, who drove the beaver to extinction.
- “Martha” the Passenger Pigeon
“Martha”: Sept. 1, 1914 1700s feather beds were made from pp. It isn’t until the mid to late 19th century that the high reproduction is overcome and begins to fall. Largely do to the rise of pigeoneers—profession pigeon hunters. “Stool pigeon” traps, or they would set up huge nets. When the end comes, it comes very quickly. The last great nesting was in Michigan in 1848. By 1890s, people start talking about the pps in the past sense. Quite clear that industrialized hunting played a huge part, not just killing the adults, but also the squaws. Jacoby’s pet theory: more a cause of habitat loss to land cleared for farming, which could have left the pps more susceptible to disease. Martha dies in the Cincinnati Zoo in 1914. When you had a huge flock nesting, they would knock down trees, breaking up the forest canopy and helping to diversify the underbrush. Droppings also fertilized the forest. Passenger pigeons were efficient eaters of nuts and would compete with mice—carriers of ticks with lyme disease—so once the pp goes extinct, the amount of mice with these ticks goes way up.
- Croton Aqueduct
1835, In 1835, NYC begins to build its first aqueduct, biggest undertaking (except Central Park) in the 19th century. Initially, the Central Library is a large reservoir for water. You can’t have fountains until you have plenty of excess water. President of Columbia College remarks of the immensity of this. Pump stations (one near school) throughout the city. This is also when you get the rise of bath houses. By 1860, the countries largest cities have a similar reservoir system—taking water from the hinterland and channeling it to the city.
