Midterm One

Question 1

Hugo Mustenberg

Answer 1

• On the Witness Stand - published in 1908
  ○ Eyewitness accuracy, confessions, suggestibility, hypnosis, crime detection, prevention of crime
  
  • But a less-than-ideal figure head
    ○ Arrogant, combative, self important
    § Inflated claims about validity of his science
    ○ Vain and loquacious
    Influential in applied psychology

Question 2

The M’Naughten Rule

Answer 2

Every man is to be presumed to be sane and… that to establish a defense on the ground of insanity, it must be clearly proved that, at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was laboring under such a defect of reason from, disease of mind and not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing; or if her did know it, that he did not know he was doing what was wrong

Question 3

Influential Canadian Cases
- R. vs. Hubbert (1975)
- Wenden v. Trikha (1991)
- R. vs. Oickle (2000)

Answer 3

• Impartiality of jurors (limitations on the press)
• Duty to warn for mental health professionals
• SSC rules police interrogation techniques acceptable and confession made with such as admissible

Question 4

PSYCHOLOGY and LAW

Answer 4

Psychology emphasizes innovation and counterintuitive thinking

Law uses the stare decisis model and a conservative stance

Psychology is empirically based

Law has an authoritarian epistemology

Experimentally methodology

Adversarial process

Descriptive (what is)

Prescriptive (what ought to be)

Nonothetic focus

Ideographic focus

Probabilistic and tentative conclusions

Emphasis on certainty and irrevocable conclusions

Academic and Abstract orientation

Pragmatic and applied orientation

Proactive orientation

Reactive orientation

Question 5

R. vs. Mohan (1994); 4 criteria (Mohan Criteria)

Answer 5

• Relevance
• Necessity
• Absence of any exclusionary rule
• Qualification of the expert

Question 6

Police Selection Process

Answer 6

• Stage One
  Job analysis stage
  Define the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) of a good police officer
• Stage Two
  Construction and validation
  Find/develop measures for assessing KSAs

Question 7

Job Analysis

Answer 7

• Determining KSAs
  Surveys
  Observation
• Who to ask
  Different characteristics listed by different individuals
• Stable over time?
  Success at training vs. success “on the job”
  Patrol officer vs. police manager

Question 8

Constructing & Validating Selection Instruments

Answer 8

• Goal is high predicative validity
• Measure of future performance… but when?
  Graduating from training academy? Academy exam scores? Number of complaints against offer?
  Early in career or later?
• Issues with restriction of range of candidates

Question 9

The Selection Interview

Answer 9

• Most common selection instrument
  Typically semi-structured interview to assess KSAs
• Relatively little literature on the predictive validity of police interview
  Mixed results
  More structured interviews -> higher predictive validity
• Low inter-rater reliability
• Positive self presentation in face-to-face interviews
  Increased risk for false positives but no reduction in false negatives

Question 10

Cognitive ability tests

Answer 10

• Verbal, mathematical, memory and reasoning abilities
• E.g. RCMP Police Aptitude Test (RPAT)
• Better at predicting successful completion of police training than on-the-job performance
  But still some predictive validity for job performance

Question 11

Personality tests

Answer 11

• Most common are MMPI, CPI, and IPI
• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
  Little predictive validity for on-the-job performance
  Some association with “problematic” behaviours
  High L score associated with poor judgment in the field (under stress)
• California Psychological Inventory (CPI)
  More consistent relationship with on-the-job performance than police academy performance
  “problematic” officers score lower on socialization self-control and sense of well-being
• Inwald Personality Inventory (IPI)
  Developed as law enforcement screening device
  Better predictive validity than the MMPI
  For supervisor ratings, citizen complaints, absences from work
  Especially good predicting problematic/negative behaviours

Question 12

Situational Tests

Answer 12

• Placing applicant in a simulated police situation
  Evoke samples of behaviours
  E.g. role playing exercises depicting common tasks like having to intervene in a dispute between a husband and wife
  Have intuitive appeal, but have not been demonstrated to be superior to psychological tests
  Plus, time-consuming and expensive

Question 13

Use of Police Discretion

Answer 13

• The ability that allows (officers) to differentiate and discriminate between circumstances that require absolute adherence to the letter of the law and those occasions when a degree of latitude is justified based on the officers knowledge experience or instinct
  Officers can-not/do-not/should-not enforce all laws all the time

Question 14

Police discretion and youth crime

Answer 14

• In the United States -30-40% of youth crime handled informally
  
  • In Canada discretion is actively encouraged when dealing with youths
    Informal or formal warnings; involving parents and or social workers; arresting but releasing; referrals to community based programs

Question 15

Police discretion and offenders with mental illnesses

Answer 15

• Training to help identify if individual poses risk to self or others
  
  • Options available:
    ○ Transport; arrest; informal resolution
    ○ Cdn studies: those with mental illness were arrested/charged more often than those with no known mental illness
    Unclear which is the better option

Question 16

Police discretion and domestic violence

Answer 16

• Historical trends
  
  • Modern policies
    ○ E.g. B.C.’s violence Against Women in Relationships Policy
  • Arrest rates range from 12 to 40% of cases
    ○ Other responses include mediation, community, referrals and separation
    Some studies suggest separation is used as often (or more often) than arrest

Question 17

Use of Force

Answer 17

• Police are allowed by force to use “as much” force as is necessary when acting on reasonable grounds to enforce the law
  Reasonable grounds and as is necessary are ambiguous

Question 18

The Case of Rodney King

Answer 18

• March 1991 in Los Angeles
  
  • King pulled over for speeding
    ○ Later determined he was 2x over the legal limit
    King taken to hospital due to his injuries

Question 19

Use of Force in Canada

Answer 19

• Police use of force in Canada is relatively rare but still shows some concerning trends
  
  • Fatal encounters/deadly use of use
    ○ Increasing over the past 20 years, notable in the past 4 yeas
    ○ Black and indigenous people more likely victims
    ○ Mental health and substance abuse issues present in majority of cases
    Black people also over-represented in lower levels of use of force

Question 20

Departmental Policies

Answer 20

• Limiting the use of police force
  
  • Used for many years and found to be effective
    ○ E.g. RCMP policy for use of tasers… only when individuals demonstrate “active resistance”
    BUT… effectiveness is limited if not endorsed/enforced by all member of department

Question 21

Use-of-force continuum

Answer 21

• Train officers to assess and evaluate potential use-of-force situations
  Teach officer to use force one step above suspect

Question 22

Police body cameras

Answer 22

• Perceptions of body-warn cameras
  ○ More positive for the general public than for police officers
  
  • Impact on use of force complaints and incidents
    ○ Positive impacts
    No impact or negative… increased force may be associated with officer discretion turning on/off BWC

Question 23

Fitness-For-Duty Evaluations

Answer 23

• … a formal specialized examination of an employee that results from (1) objective evidence that the employee may be unable to safely of effectively perform a defined job and (2) a reasonable basis for believing that the cause may be attributable to a psychological condition or impairment. The central purpose of an FFDE is to determine whether the employee is able to safely and effectively perform his or her essential job functions
  
  • Must be performed by qualified psychologists or psychiatrists
  • Evaluator familiar with testing & evaluation in police psychology
  • Interview, battery or psychological tests interview with supervisor, coworkers, family and past psychological and medical evaluations
    Unfit for duty, unfit but treatable, no psychological diagnosis, invalid evaluations

Question 24

Police Stress

Answer 24

• High stress job
  ○ For both officers and their families
  
  • Source of stress
    ○ On the job dangers?
    
    1. Organizational stressors
    2. Occupational stressors
    3. Criminal justice stressors
       Public stressors

Question 25

Suicide by Cop (SbC)

Answer 25

• Deliberatly provokes a lethal response from law enforcement
  
  • Parent (1996)
    ○ 46% of officer-involved shootings are “victim-precipitated homicides”
  • Mohandie, Meloy, & Collins (2009)
    ○ 36% of North American officer-involved shootings are SbC
  • Bohl (1999)
    ○ SbC resulted in symptoms of PTSD (but symptoms mild and relatively short-lived)

Question 26

Managing Police Stress

Answer 26

• Most agencies have formal programs to combat police stress
  ○ Informal support networks
  ○ Physical fitness programs
  ○ Professional counseling services
  ○ Family assistance programs
  ○ Special assessments (FFDEs)
  
  • Are they effective?
    ○ Very few studies, small N-size, low quality trials, minimal data
    Concluded we need more research

Question 27

Past Techniques were coercive

Answer 27

• Whipping suspects, using a stun gun, prolonged periods of questioning with no sleep
  Overt acts of coercion replaced with more subtle, psychologically-based interrogation techniques

Question 28

The Reid Model of Interrogation

Answer 28

• 3-part process
  1. Gather evidence & interview witnesses and victims
  i. Fact analysis
  2. Conduct non-accusatory interview with suspect
  i. Also know as behavioural analysis interview (BAI)
  ii. Assess deception
  3. Conduct accusatory interview with suspect
  9-step procedure

Question 29

Accusatory Interview

Answer 29

1. Confront suspect with quilt
   ○ Present evidence (even if it does not exist)
   ○ Talk in simplified terms (i.e. fires rather than arson
   
   2. Allow suspect to justify, rationalize or excuse the crime (theme development)
      ○ Interrogator may even sympathize with suspect, say the victim was asking for it
      ○ Shift blame
      ○ *** be careful not to imply lowered moral responsibility equals lowered legal responsibility or lowered punishment
   3. Interrupt any denials by suspect (handling denials)
      ○ Do not allow suspect to gain upper hand
   4. Overcome suspect’s objections until they become quiet and withdrawn
      ○ Continue developing the themes
   5. Reduce psychological and physical distance between interrogator and suspect
      ○ Make sure suspect doesn’t “tune out”
      ○ Insure they are receptive to the interview
   6. Exhibit sympathy and understanding, urge suspect to “come clean”
   7. Offer “face saving” explanations for the crime
      ○ Self-incrimination easier
      ○ Presenting an alternative question
   8. When suspect accepts responsibility for crime develop admission into a full confession
      Have suspect write up and sign confession

Question 30

Use minimization and maximization (Good/Bad cop)

Answer 30

Use minimization and maximization (Good/Bad cop)

Question 31

Police Cautions

Answer 31

• Different wordings in different countries
  
  • The right to not self-incriminate
    ○ Anything said before warning may not be admissible in court
    § But only if individual is “in custody” (under arrest)
  • But do people really understand these cautions?
    ○ Not fully understood, especially when presented verbally
    ○ Particularly problematic for “vulnerable populations”
    § Young offenders, those with impaired intellectual capacity
  • Some also minimize the warning
    “I don’t think this is really necessary here…you’ve probably heard this on TV before, you could probably recite it to me, so just as a precaution…”

Question 31

Potential Problems with Reid Model

Answer 31

1. Relies on interrogator’s ability to detect deception in BAI
   ○ But deception detection is not very good
   
   2. Investigator biases
      ○ Confirmation bias
      § Seek evidence of guilt, ignore/fail to note inconsistent evidence
      Coercive nature of some interrogation practices

Question 32

Coercive Interrogation Practices

Answer 32

• To be admissible, must satisfy 2 conditions:
  ○ confession made voluntarily
  ○ suspect competent when s/he made the confession
  
  • Confessions
    ○ Excluded if elicited by brute force, prolonged isolation, deprivation of food or sleep, promises of immunity or leniency, or if suspect not informed of constitutional rights (although there are exceptions to this one)
    But subtle forms of coercion are allowed

Question 32

Mr. Big Technique (AKA the Canadian Technique)

Answer 32

• R. vs Oickle (2000)
  ○ Another Canadian case
  ○ Oickle confessed to 7 counts of arson
  ○ Police interrogation included questionable practices
  § Exaggerating infallibility of polygraph
  § Implying psychiatric help would be provided
  § Minimizing seriousness of the crimes
  Suggesting a confession would spare his girlfriend from a stressful interrogation

Question 33

False Confessions

Answer 33

• Elicited in response to a demand for confession and is either intentionally fabricated or is not based on actual knowledge of the facts that form its content
  ○ Retracted confessions
  § Individual declares confession is false (whether or not is actually is)
  ○ Disputed confessions
  § Confessions disputed at trial; legal technicalities or suspect says confession was never made
  ○ Voluntary false confessions
  § Made without elicitation by police
  § E.g. John Mark Karr
  § May be due to:
  Desire for notoriety or attention

Question 34

John Mark Karr

Answer 34

• Arrested for pornography in 2001
  ○ Fled US
  
  • Arrested in Thailand in 2006
    ○ Confessed to killing JonBenet Ramsey
    ○ But DNA did not match evidence found at the murder scene
  • Coerced-compliant false confessions
    ○ Suspect knows s/he did not commit the crime
    ○ Most common type of false confession
    ○ Often a result of coercive interrogation techniques
  • Coerced-internalized false confession
    ○ Individual ends up believing s/he committed the crime
    ○ Often results from highly suggestive questioning
    ○ Associated with:
    § History of substance abuse
    § Inability to detect discrepancies between reality and what has been suggested
    Severe anxiety, confusion or feelings of guilt

Question 35

Paul Ingram

Answer 35

• Law enforcement officer, active member of fundamentalist church
  
  • Accused by his two daughters of rape and satanic ritualistic abuse
    Confessed following highly suggestive interview techniques

Question 35

The Process of Internalization

Answer 35

• Kassin (2007)
  ○ Vulnerable to manipulation
  § Due to dispositional characteristics (IQ) or low transient factors
  ○ Police confront individual with false evidence
  Reconciles lack of memory by presuming s/he has blacked out, dissociated, or repressed the event

Question 36

Ethical Constraints

Answer 36

Unethical to try and convince individual s/he guilty of horrible crime

Question 36

How ecologically valid are the lab paradigms?

Answer 36

• How realistic is the situation? The threat?
  
  • Are people more or less likely to falsely confess when there is less at stake? When the punishments are less severe? When they are less anxious about the situation?

Question 36

Is profiling are/craft or science?

Answer 36

Is it based on “tacit knowledge” or “intuition”?

Question 36

Criminal Profiling

Answer 36

• A technique for identifying the major personality and behavioural characteristics of an individual based on the crime(s) committed
  ○ John Douglas et al., (1986)
  
  • Most often used in serial rape and/or homicide cases
    ○ Cases involving more extreme forms of psychopathology
    ○ “motiveless” crimes
  • Also known as
    ○ Offender profiling
    ○ Investigative psychology
    ○ Criminal investigative analysis
    ○ Behavioural investigative advice
  • Profiling typically includes:
    ○ Offender’s age
    ○ Sex race
    ○ Level of intelligence
    ○ Educational background, hobbies
    ○ Family background, marital status, employment status
    ○ Residential location
    ○ Criminal history
  • Profiling are investigative tools
    Do not amount to probative evidence that can be used in court to establish guilt

Question 37

PEACE Model

Answer 37

• Non-confrontational (inquisitorial) interviewing model - UK since 1993
  
  • PEACE
    ○ Preparation and planning
    ○ Engage and explain
    ○ Account and clarification
    ○ Closure
    ○ Evaluation
  • Focus is on fairness, openness, accountability, and fact finding… rather than securing a confession
    Lying, manipulation and heavy pressure are avoided

Question 38

Inductive criminal profiling

Answer 38

• Prediction of offender characteristics via comparison to other known offenders of similar crimes
  But sampling issues

Question 39

Deductive criminal profiling

Answer 39

• Predicting criminal’s characteristics from analysis of evidence at crime scene
  
  • Relies on logical reasoning
    But this can be flawed

Question 40

Crime Scene Analysis (CSA)

Answer 40

• Developed by the Behavioural Science Unit (BSU) of the FBI
  
  • 6 stage process
    
    1. Profiling inputs
       i. Collection of information relevant to the crime
    2. Decision process models
       i. Assess type od and style of crime
    3. Crime assessment
       i. Reconstruct the crime, from perspective of victim and offender
    4. Criminal profile
       i. Use the above information to create a profile
    5. Investigation
       Apprehension

Question 40

The Organized-Disorganized Model

Answer 40

• Developed by the FBI in the 1980s
  
  • Classify the crime scene as organized or disorganized then makes inferences about the criminal
  • But…
    ○ Many/most crime scenes contain both
    § Importance of situational characteristics in influencing the crime
    Many argue against the validity and usefulness of such typologies

Question 41

Holmes & Holmes (1998) classification of serial killers

Answer 41

• Visionary
  ○ Ransacking; belongings & clothing scattered; bludgeoned; weapon of opportunity; weapon left in victim
  
  • Mission
    ○ Bludgeoning; firearm; murder weapon missing; throat cut
  • Lust
    ○ Multiple crime scenes, multiple sex acts; torture; overkill
  • Thrill
    ○ Multiple crime scenes; restraints; torture; gagging; alive during sex acts
  • Power/control
    Multiple crime scenes; restraints; torture; alive during sex acts; tease cuts; dismemberment

Question 42

Investigative Psychology (IP)

Answer 42

• Originated in Britain with David Cantor
  
  • A collection of related theories and hypotheses
    ○ Crime viewed as an interpersonal transaction
    1. Salience
    ○ Need to establish which crime charcteristics are behaviourally important
    2. Consistency
    ○ Are these salient charcteristics consistent?
    § Across time? Across situations?
    3. Differentiation
    ○ Can the characteristics be used to differentiate/distinguish between offender types?
    § Rare behavioural patterns may be the most useful to differentiate between offences and offenders
    4. Linking serial offenses
    ○ How can we link crimes
    § What aspects of modus operandi (m.o) are important and consistent
    5. Inferences
    Models for making inferences about the offender based on the nature of the crime

Question 43

Radex Model for Serial Killer’s Actions

Question 44

Criticisms of Profiling

Answer 44

• Typologies
  ○ Trying to fit people into a box… particularly problematic if it is a very broad box
  
  • Questioning about whether personality traits are stable and strongly/consistently predict behaviour
    ○ What about the situation?
    ○ Bennell & Cantor (2002)
    § Low consistency for items stolen & entry methods; high consistency for crime site choices
  • Concerns about homology
    ○ Strong link between offender characteristics & offense behaviour?
    ○ Again, many point to the importance of the situation
  • Ambiguity in profiles
    ○ Earlier research showed -24% of profiles were ambiguous
    ○ More recent research suggests this is declining
  • Accuracy
    ○ Mixed results in the literature
    ○ Kocsis’ research
  • Usefulness of profiles
    ○ Suggested very few profiles assisted in the identification of the suspect
  • Concerns about suspect-based profiling
    ○ Looking for characteristics of someone who is likely to commit a certain crime
    § May lead to racial/ethnic profiling
    § E.g. driving while black
    ○ Is it effective?
    § E.g. Colleen LaRose aka Jihad Jane
    ○ Not allowed in Canada
    Violation of Charter of rights

Question 45

Geographic Profiling

Answer 45

• Most serial offenders do not travel far from home to offend
  ○ And may get closer to home as number of crimes increases
  
  • Used most often to prioritize potential suspects
    ○ But also to:
    § Prioritize tips
    § Determine which regions to canvas more heavily
    § Determine level of police patrols
  • Several computerized geographical profiling systems
  • One of the first created in Vancouver by Dr. Kim Rossmo
  • Location is one characteristic that is relatively stable
  • But…
    Do you need an expensive computer program to figure out location?

Question 46

Violent Crime Linkage Analysis System (ViCLAS)

Answer 46

• Computer analysis system for linking related crimes
  ○ Developed in Canada in the 1990s by the RCMP
  ○ Vast database of violent crimes
  
  • Centers in all Cdn provinces
    ○ Except PEI
  • Other counties have purchased the system
    15,000$ Cdn

Question 47

The Comparison Question Test (CQT)

Answer 47

• Aka the Control Question Test
  
  • Pretest interview
    ○ Develop control questions
    ○ Convince suspect of accuracy of polygraph
    ○ Questions while measuring physiological response
    § Yes/no format
    § Irrelevant questions
    □ Baseline
    § Relevant
    □ About the crime under investigation
    § Control
    □ Probable-lie comparison questions; emotionally arousing
    Post-test interview

Question 48

The Concealed Information Test (CIT)

Answer 48

• Originally called the Guilty Knowledge Test
  
  • Assesses whether the suspect is aware of aspects of crime known only to the perpetrator
  • Series of multiple choice questions
    ○ Correct answer = critical option
  • Typically measures palmer sweating
    ○ But others have investigated response time, eye blinks and pupil diameter
    Not used frequently in the US or Canada

Question 49

Criticisms of the Polygraph

Answer 49

• Both CQT and CIT do not actually reflect lying
  ○ Rather measure shifts in emotional reactivity & make inferences about lying
  
  • Testing and scoring procedures not always standardized
    ○ Visual inspection of data/output
  • Suspect often misled about accuracy of test
  • Potential violations of subjects privacy
    I.e. asking about sexuality or religious beliefs

Question 50

CQT vs. CIT?

Answer 50

• CIT good at identifying innocent suspect, not as effective at identifying guilty suspect
  ○ Vulnerable to false negative errors
  
  • CQT good at identifying guilty suspects, but not innocent suspects
    ○ Vulnerable to false positive errors
  • Which type of error is more problematic?
    From the view of the suspect? From the view of the police officer?

Question 51

Beating the Polygraph

Answer 51

• Honts, Raskin, & Kircher (1994)
  ○ Instructions on how the CQT works allowed people to “beat the polygraph”
  § Physical countermeasures
  § Mental countermeasures
  ○ Patrick & lacona (1989)
  § Guilty psychopaths detected as easily a non-psychopaths
  But innocent suspects identified with only 56% accuracy

Question 52

National Research Council (NRC, 2003)

Answer 52

• Theoretically weak basis for differentiating fear, arousal and other emotional states
  
  • Lab studies likely overestimate accuracy in field practice
  • Very few quality field studies to validate use of polygraph
    Little empirical backing for use of polygraph

Question 53

How is the Polygraph Used?

Answer 53

• Generally not acceptable as evidence in court of law
  ○ US supreme Court
  § Rejected admissibility
  § Allowed in some states under certain conditions
  ○ Not admissible in Canadian criminal courts
  § But some judges may allow it in civil or labour cases
  
  1. For investigate purposes
     ○ RCMP Behavioural Sciences
     ○ But what is a suspect “passes” a polygraph
     § Case of Gary Ridgway
     § Will this lead investigation astray? Waste resources?
  2. For pre-employment screening
     ○ RCMP, CSIS
     § But concerns about validity of technique & invasive/insulting questions
  3. Monitoring sex offenders
     ○ To check for recidivism and adherence to probation/treatment requirements

Question 54

Verbal and Non-verbal Cues to Lying

Answer 54

• Same underlying idea as polygraph
  ○ Deception procedures physiological changes
  
  • Verbal cues
    ○ What is said
    ○ How it is siad
  • Non-verbal cues
    ○ Gaze aversion
    ○ Facial expressions, micro expressions
    ○ Body movements and manipulations
    Posture

Question 54

Arousal Approach

Answer 54

Lying is a novel situation that increase arousal

Question 55

Emotional Approach

Answer 55

Guilt and fear of detection

Question 56

Attempted control approach

Answer 56

Liars will attempt to control different communication channels to create a credible demeanor

Question 57

Cognitive approach

Answer 57

Lying takes up resources, especially complex lies

Question 58

Research - Non-verbal Cues

Answer 58

• DePaulo et al., (2003)
  ○ Meta-analysis of cues to deception studies
  § Eye contact, gaze aversion, eye shifts not associated with lying
  § Posture shifts, hand movements, foot/leg movement not associated with lying
  § Overall liars did fidget more than non-liars
  □ But small effect size + no clear relationship between specific types of fidgeting and deception
  § Pupil dilation and pitch of voice associated with deception
  § Speech disturbances not associated with deception
  “The look and sound of deceit are faint”

Question 58

Research-Verbal Cues

Answer 58

• DePaulo et al. (2003)
  ○ Liars provide fewer details & stories less compelling
  § Less plausible, lack structure, have discrepancies
  ○ Truth tellers more likely to spontaneously correct stories & admit lack of memory
  
  • Sporer & Schwandt (2006)
    ○ Longer response latencies for liars
    ○ More errors in speech
    Liars had shorter “stories”

Question 59

Detecting Deception

Answer 59

• Aamondt & Custer (2006)
  ○ Police not more accurate in detecting lies than college students
  ○ Reliance on behaviours that lack predictive validity
  § i.e. avoiding eye contact, fidgeting
  ○ Truth bias
  Tendency to judge more messages as truthful

Question 60

Detecting Deception

Answer 60

• Ekman & O’Sullivan (1991)
  ○ Forensic psychiatrists, customs agents, FBI agents, judges at chance levels of detecting deception
  ○ Only US Secret Service agents performed above chance
  § Reliance on multiple cues to deception
  ○ Porter, Woodworth, & Birt (2000)
  § Parole officers performed below chance (40%)
  But after attending deception detection workshop performance improved (70%)

Question 61

Detecting Deception

Answer 61

• Vrij (2000)
  ○ Review of 40 studies
  ○ 67% accuracy for detecting truths, 44% accuracy for detecting lies
  ○ Most professionals not better than the average person
  § Even professional “lie catchers” display a truth bias
  Rely on inappropriate cues

Question 62

Detecting Deception

Answer 62

• However, some studies show accuracy rates for police go up during police interrogations
  ○ More ecological validity? Familiar situation? Criminals more motivated to lie?
  
  • Does training improve deception detection?
    ○ Hauch et al. (2016)
    § Meta-analysis involving 30 studies
    § Small to medium training effect for detecting deception, but not for truth accuracy
    § Larger improvements if training focused on verbal content cues
    § Training not effective if it only included a video or lecture and no written material
    Longer training more effective than shorter

Question 63

Strongest Markers of Deception/Truthfulness

Answer 63

• Deception
  ○ Higher voice pitch
  ○ More speech disturbances
  ○ Slower speech rate and more pauses
  ○ Fewer details
  
  • Truthfulness
    ○ Make spontaneous corrections
    ○ Admit to lack of memory
    ○ More detail, more words, longer

Question 64

Malingering

Answer 64

1. Psychological or physical symptoms clearly under voluntary control
   
   2. External motivations
      - E.g. to avoid prosecution to obtain drugs or other medical treatments, disability or insurance claims etc
      - Prevalence is high in forensic contexts

Question 65

Detecting Malingering

Answer 65

• Malingerers tend to overact
  ○ Bizarre symptoms
  ○ Excess symptoms
  
  • Willing (eager) to discuss symptoms
  • Report rare/atypical symptoms
  • More likely to report positive symptoms of schizophrenia
    ○ Feigned hallucinations and delusions
    ○ Rarely negative symptoms like flat affect
  • Interview
    ○ E.g. structured interview of Reported symptoms (SIRS)
    § 172 items; 8 scales
  • Self-report Questionnaires
    ○ E.g. MMPI-2
    § Clinically oriented personality questionnaire
    Includes subscales to detect “faking bad” or malingering

Question 66

Deception is

Answer 66

FAR FROM PERFECT