Midterm One Flashcards

Question

Suicide by Cop (SbC)

Answer 1

- Deliberatly provokes a lethal response from law enforcement - Parent (1996) ○ 46% of officer-involved shootings are "victim-precipitated homicides" - Mohandie, Meloy, & Collins (2009) ○ 36% of North American officer-involved shootings are SbC - Bohl (1999) ○ SbC resulted in symptoms of PTSD (but symptoms mild and relatively short-lived)

Answer 2

- Most agencies have formal programs to combat police stress ○ Informal support networks ○ Physical fitness programs ○ Professional counseling services ○ Family assistance programs ○ Special assessments (FFDEs) - Are they effective? ○ Very few studies, small N-size, low quality trials, minimal data Concluded we need more research

Answer 3

- Whipping suspects, using a stun gun, prolonged periods of questioning with no sleep Overt acts of coercion replaced with more subtle, psychologically-based interrogation techniques

Answer 4

- 3-part process 1. Gather evidence & interview witnesses and victims i. Fact analysis 2. Conduct non-accusatory interview with suspect i. Also know as behavioural analysis interview (BAI) ii. Assess deception 3. Conduct accusatory interview with suspect 9-step procedure

Answer 5

1. Confront suspect with quilt ○ Present evidence (even if it does not exist) ○ Talk in simplified terms (i.e. fires rather than arson 2. Allow suspect to justify, rationalize or excuse the crime (theme development) ○ Interrogator may even sympathize with suspect, say the victim was asking for it ○ Shift blame ○ *** be careful not to imply lowered moral responsibility equals lowered legal responsibility or lowered punishment 3. Interrupt any denials by suspect (handling denials) ○ Do not allow suspect to gain upper hand 4. Overcome suspect's objections until they become quiet and withdrawn ○ Continue developing the themes 5. Reduce psychological and physical distance between interrogator and suspect ○ Make sure suspect doesn't "tune out" ○ Insure they are receptive to the interview 6. Exhibit sympathy and understanding, urge suspect to "come clean" 7. Offer "face saving" explanations for the crime ○ Self-incrimination easier ○ Presenting an alternative question 8. When suspect accepts responsibility for crime develop admission into a full confession Have suspect write up and sign confession

Answer 6

Use minimization and maximization (Good/Bad cop)

Answer 7

- Different wordings in different countries - The right to not self-incriminate ○ Anything said before warning may not be admissible in court § But only if individual is “in custody” (under arrest) - But do people really understand these cautions? ○ Not fully understood, especially when presented verbally ○ Particularly problematic for “vulnerable populations” § Young offenders, those with impaired intellectual capacity - Some also minimize the warning “I don’t think this is really necessary here…you’ve probably heard this on TV before, you could probably recite it to me, so just as a precaution…”

Answer 8

1. Relies on interrogator's ability to detect deception in BAI ○ But deception detection is not very good 2. Investigator biases ○ Confirmation bias § Seek evidence of guilt, ignore/fail to note inconsistent evidence Coercive nature of some interrogation practices

Answer 9

- To be admissible, must satisfy 2 conditions: ○ confession made voluntarily ○ suspect competent when s/he made the confession - Confessions ○ Excluded if elicited by brute force, prolonged isolation, deprivation of food or sleep, promises of immunity or leniency, or if suspect not informed of constitutional rights (although there are exceptions to this one) But subtle forms of coercion are allowed

Answer 10

- R. vs Oickle (2000) ○ Another Canadian case ○ Oickle confessed to 7 counts of arson ○ Police interrogation included questionable practices § Exaggerating infallibility of polygraph § Implying psychiatric help would be provided § Minimizing seriousness of the crimes Suggesting a confession would spare his girlfriend from a stressful interrogation

Answer 11

- Elicited in response to a demand for confession and is either intentionally fabricated or is not based on actual knowledge of the facts that form its content ○ Retracted confessions § Individual declares confession is false (whether or not is actually is) ○ Disputed confessions § Confessions disputed at trial; legal technicalities or suspect says confession was never made ○ Voluntary false confessions § Made without elicitation by police § E.g. John Mark Karr § May be due to: Desire for notoriety or attention

Answer 12

- Arrested for pornography in 2001 ○ Fled US - Arrested in Thailand in 2006 ○ Confessed to killing JonBenet Ramsey ○ But DNA did not match evidence found at the murder scene - Coerced-compliant false confessions ○ Suspect knows s/he did not commit the crime ○ Most common type of false confession ○ Often a result of coercive interrogation techniques - Coerced-internalized false confession ○ Individual ends up believing s/he committed the crime ○ Often results from highly suggestive questioning ○ Associated with: § History of substance abuse § Inability to detect discrepancies between reality and what has been suggested Severe anxiety, confusion or feelings of guilt

Answer 13

- Law enforcement officer, active member of fundamentalist church - Accused by his two daughters of rape and satanic ritualistic abuse Confessed following highly suggestive interview techniques

Answer 14

- Kassin (2007) ○ Vulnerable to manipulation § Due to dispositional characteristics (IQ) or low transient factors ○ Police confront individual with false evidence Reconciles lack of memory by presuming s/he has blacked out, dissociated, or repressed the event

Answer 15

Unethical to try and convince individual s/he guilty of horrible crime

Answer 16

- How realistic is the situation? The threat? - Are people more or less likely to falsely confess when there is less at stake? When the punishments are less severe? When they are less anxious about the situation?

Answer 17

Is it based on "tacit knowledge" or "intuition"?

Answer 18

- A technique for identifying the major personality and behavioural characteristics of an individual based on the crime(s) committed ○ John Douglas et al., (1986) - Most often used in serial rape and/or homicide cases ○ Cases involving more extreme forms of psychopathology ○ "motiveless" crimes - Also known as ○ Offender profiling ○ Investigative psychology ○ Criminal investigative analysis ○ Behavioural investigative advice - Profiling typically includes: ○ Offender's age ○ Sex race ○ Level of intelligence ○ Educational background, hobbies ○ Family background, marital status, employment status ○ Residential location ○ Criminal history - Profiling are investigative tools Do not amount to probative evidence that can be used in court to establish guilt

Answer 19

- Non-confrontational (inquisitorial) interviewing model - UK since 1993 - PEACE ○ Preparation and planning ○ Engage and explain ○ Account and clarification ○ Closure ○ Evaluation - Focus is on fairness, openness, accountability, and fact finding… rather than securing a confession Lying, manipulation and heavy pressure are avoided

Answer 20

- Prediction of offender characteristics via comparison to other known offenders of similar crimes But sampling issues

Answer 21

- Predicting criminal's characteristics from analysis of evidence at crime scene - Relies on logical reasoning But this can be flawed

Answer 22

- Developed by the Behavioural Science Unit (BSU) of the FBI - 6 stage process 1. Profiling inputs i. Collection of information relevant to the crime 2. Decision process models i. Assess type od and style of crime 3. Crime assessment i. Reconstruct the crime, from perspective of victim and offender 4. Criminal profile i. Use the above information to create a profile 5. Investigation Apprehension

Answer 23

- Developed by the FBI in the 1980s - Classify the crime scene as organized or disorganized then makes inferences about the criminal - But… ○ Many/most crime scenes contain both § Importance of situational characteristics in influencing the crime Many argue against the validity and usefulness of such typologies

Answer 24

- Visionary ○ Ransacking; belongings & clothing scattered; bludgeoned; weapon of opportunity; weapon left in victim - Mission ○ Bludgeoning; firearm; murder weapon missing; throat cut - Lust ○ Multiple crime scenes, multiple sex acts; torture; overkill - Thrill ○ Multiple crime scenes; restraints; torture; gagging; alive during sex acts - Power/control Multiple crime scenes; restraints; torture; alive during sex acts; tease cuts; dismemberment

Answer 25

- Originated in Britain with David Cantor - A collection of related theories and hypotheses ○ Crime viewed as an interpersonal transaction 1. Salience ○ Need to establish which crime charcteristics are behaviourally important 2. Consistency ○ Are these salient charcteristics consistent? § Across time? Across situations? 3. Differentiation ○ Can the characteristics be used to differentiate/distinguish between offender types? § Rare behavioural patterns may be the most useful to differentiate between offences and offenders 4. Linking serial offenses ○ How can we link crimes § What aspects of modus operandi (m.o) are important and consistent 5. Inferences Models for making inferences about the offender based on the nature of the crime

Answer 26

- Typologies ○ Trying to fit people into a box… particularly problematic if it is a very broad box - Questioning about whether personality traits are stable and strongly/consistently predict behaviour ○ What about the situation? ○ Bennell & Cantor (2002) § Low consistency for items stolen & entry methods; high consistency for crime site choices - Concerns about homology ○ Strong link between offender characteristics & offense behaviour? ○ Again, many point to the importance of the situation - Ambiguity in profiles ○ Earlier research showed -24% of profiles were ambiguous ○ More recent research suggests this is declining - Accuracy ○ Mixed results in the literature ○ Kocsis' research - Usefulness of profiles ○ Suggested very few profiles assisted in the identification of the suspect - Concerns about suspect-based profiling ○ Looking for characteristics of someone who is likely to commit a certain crime § May lead to racial/ethnic profiling § E.g. driving while black ○ Is it effective? § E.g. Colleen LaRose aka Jihad Jane ○ Not allowed in Canada Violation of Charter of rights

Answer 27

- Most serial offenders do not travel far from home to offend ○ And may get closer to home as number of crimes increases - Used most often to prioritize potential suspects ○ But also to: § Prioritize tips § Determine which regions to canvas more heavily § Determine level of police patrols - Several computerized geographical profiling systems - One of the first created in Vancouver by Dr. Kim Rossmo - Location is one characteristic that is relatively stable - But… Do you need an expensive computer program to figure out location?

Answer 28

- Computer analysis system for linking related crimes ○ Developed in Canada in the 1990s by the RCMP ○ Vast database of violent crimes - Centers in all Cdn provinces ○ Except PEI - Other counties have purchased the system 15,000$ Cdn

Answer 29

- Aka the Control Question Test - Pretest interview ○ Develop control questions ○ Convince suspect of accuracy of polygraph ○ Questions while measuring physiological response § Yes/no format § Irrelevant questions □ Baseline § Relevant □ About the crime under investigation § Control □ Probable-lie comparison questions; emotionally arousing Post-test interview

Answer 30

- Originally called the Guilty Knowledge Test - Assesses whether the suspect is aware of aspects of crime known only to the perpetrator - Series of multiple choice questions ○ Correct answer = critical option - Typically measures palmer sweating ○ But others have investigated response time, eye blinks and pupil diameter Not used frequently in the US or Canada

Answer 31

- Both CQT and CIT do not actually reflect lying ○ Rather measure shifts in emotional reactivity & make inferences about lying - Testing and scoring procedures not always standardized ○ Visual inspection of data/output - Suspect often misled about accuracy of test - Potential violations of subjects privacy I.e. asking about sexuality or religious beliefs

Answer 32

- CIT good at identifying innocent suspect, not as effective at identifying guilty suspect ○ Vulnerable to false negative errors - CQT good at identifying guilty suspects, but not innocent suspects ○ Vulnerable to false positive errors - Which type of error is more problematic? From the view of the suspect? From the view of the police officer?

Answer 33

- Honts, Raskin, & Kircher (1994) ○ Instructions on how the CQT works allowed people to "beat the polygraph" § Physical countermeasures § Mental countermeasures ○ Patrick & lacona (1989) § Guilty psychopaths detected as easily a non-psychopaths But innocent suspects identified with only 56% accuracy

Answer 34

- Theoretically weak basis for differentiating fear, arousal and other emotional states - Lab studies likely overestimate accuracy in field practice - Very few quality field studies to validate use of polygraph Little empirical backing for use of polygraph

Answer 35

- Generally not acceptable as evidence in court of law ○ US supreme Court § Rejected admissibility § Allowed in some states under certain conditions ○ Not admissible in Canadian criminal courts § But some judges may allow it in civil or labour cases 1. For investigate purposes ○ RCMP Behavioural Sciences ○ But what is a suspect "passes" a polygraph § Case of Gary Ridgway § Will this lead investigation astray? Waste resources? 2. For pre-employment screening ○ RCMP, CSIS § But concerns about validity of technique & invasive/insulting questions 3. Monitoring sex offenders ○ To check for recidivism and adherence to probation/treatment requirements

Answer 36

- Same underlying idea as polygraph ○ Deception procedures physiological changes - Verbal cues ○ What is said ○ How it is siad - Non-verbal cues ○ Gaze aversion ○ Facial expressions, micro expressions ○ Body movements and manipulations Posture

Answer 37

Lying is a novel situation that increase arousal

Answer 38

Guilt and fear of detection

Answer 39

Liars will attempt to control different communication channels to create a credible demeanor

Answer 40

Lying takes up resources, especially complex lies

Answer 41

- DePaulo et al., (2003) ○ Meta-analysis of cues to deception studies § Eye contact, gaze aversion, eye shifts not associated with lying § Posture shifts, hand movements, foot/leg movement not associated with lying § Overall liars did fidget more than non-liars □ But small effect size + no clear relationship between specific types of fidgeting and deception § Pupil dilation and pitch of voice associated with deception § Speech disturbances not associated with deception "The look and sound of deceit are faint"

Answer 42

- DePaulo et al. (2003) ○ Liars provide fewer details & stories less compelling § Less plausible, lack structure, have discrepancies ○ Truth tellers more likely to spontaneously correct stories & admit lack of memory - Sporer & Schwandt (2006) ○ Longer response latencies for liars ○ More errors in speech Liars had shorter “stories”

Answer 43

- Aamondt & Custer (2006) ○ Police not more accurate in detecting lies than college students ○ Reliance on behaviours that lack predictive validity § i.e. avoiding eye contact, fidgeting ○ Truth bias Tendency to judge more messages as truthful

Answer 44

- Ekman & O’Sullivan (1991) ○ Forensic psychiatrists, customs agents, FBI agents, judges at chance levels of detecting deception ○ Only US Secret Service agents performed above chance § Reliance on multiple cues to deception ○ Porter, Woodworth, & Birt (2000) § Parole officers performed below chance (40%) But after attending deception detection workshop performance improved (70%)

Answer 45

- Vrij (2000) ○ Review of 40 studies ○ 67% accuracy for detecting truths, 44% accuracy for detecting lies ○ Most professionals not better than the average person § Even professional “lie catchers” display a truth bias Rely on inappropriate cues

Answer 46

- However, some studies show accuracy rates for police go up during police interrogations ○ More ecological validity? Familiar situation? Criminals more motivated to lie? - Does training improve deception detection? ○ Hauch et al. (2016) § Meta-analysis involving 30 studies § Small to medium training effect for detecting deception, but not for truth accuracy § Larger improvements if training focused on verbal content cues § Training not effective if it only included a video or lecture and no written material Longer training more effective than shorter

Answer 47

- Deception ○ Higher voice pitch ○ More speech disturbances ○ Slower speech rate and more pauses ○ Fewer details - Truthfulness ○ Make spontaneous corrections ○ Admit to lack of memory ○ More detail, more words, longer

Answer 48

1. Psychological or physical symptoms clearly under voluntary control 2. External motivations - E.g. to avoid prosecution to obtain drugs or other medical treatments, disability or insurance claims etc - Prevalence is high in forensic contexts

Answer 49

- Malingerers tend to overact ○ Bizarre symptoms ○ Excess symptoms - Willing (eager) to discuss symptoms - Report rare/atypical symptoms - More likely to report positive symptoms of schizophrenia ○ Feigned hallucinations and delusions ○ Rarely negative symptoms like flat affect - Interview ○ E.g. structured interview of Reported symptoms (SIRS) § 172 items; 8 scales - Self-report Questionnaires ○ E.g. MMPI-2 § Clinically oriented personality questionnaire Includes subscales to detect "faking bad" or malingering

Answer 50

FAR FROM PERFECT