Midterm One Flashcards
Definition of Structuralism
The examination of the structure of the mind (ideas, sensations, etc.) Based on the idea that psychology ought to be analyzing consciousness into its elements and examine how they’re related. Emerged under Edward Titchener in 1892.
Edward Titchener
Former student of Wilhelm Wundt and father of structuralism (1892).
What were most structuralists concerned with?
Sensory experiences, and this was dependent on introspection.
Definition of Functionalism
School of thought based on the idea that psychology should investigate the structure and purpose of consciousness. Viewed consciousness as a stream. Interested in how people adapt their behaviour to their environment.
Functionalism fostered what movement?
Behaviorism
William James
Mainly influenced functionalism.
Behaviourism
Theoretical orientation based on the premise that psychology should only describe observable behaviour. Mental processes are not verifiable and not a proper subject.
John B. Watson
Founder of behaviourism
B.F. Skinner
Influential psychologist and behaviourist, asserted that free will is an illusion. Experimented on animals and asserted that behaviour was entirely environmentally-based.
Humanism
Theoretical orientation founded in opposition to behaviourism, states that people are not pawns of their animal heritage (therefore animal research is kinda moot). Humans have a basic need to fulfill their potential (self-actualization)
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
Fathers of humanism
Three levels of analysis within psychology
- Human nature (we are all the same)
- Group differences (we are like some others)
- Individual uniqueness (we are like no others)
Research psychology
Studying people (or animals) to try and determine human characteristics (influences on behaviour)
Applied psychology
Therapists and other psychologists utilizing the knowledge gained in research to have a real-world difference
Animism
The belief that animals, people, and inanimate objects are inhabited by spirits.
Dualism
The belief that the mind and body are two separate categories. The body functions like a machine but the mind is not made up of ordinary matter.
Empiricism
Pursuit of truth through observation and experience.
Rationalism
Pursuit of truth through reason.
Materialism
Reality can only be understood by examining the physical world.
What is psychology?
The science of behaviour and the physiological and cognitive processes which underlie it.
Research Psychology
Psychologists who are studying people (or animals) in order to determine basic human characteristics (influences on behaviour).
Applied Psychology
Therapists and other psychologists who are using the knowledge acquired through research to make a difference in the real world.
Idiographic research
Focuses on one individual (case study)
Nomothetic research
Involves statistical comparisons of data from across different groups of participants. Uses this data to test a theory.
The scientific method in psychology (five steps)
i. Identifying the problem (hypothesis)
ii. Designing a study
iii. Performing a study
iv. Examining the data
v. Communicating the results
Independent variable
The variable being manipulated by the researcher
Dependent variable
Variable that is measured.
Random assignment
Each participant has an equally likely chance of being assigned to either group in the study.
Control group
The group that is experiences no change in the independent variable.
Experimental group
The group that is affected by a change in the independent variable.
Reliability
Tool/test must be able to consistently measure the variable it is supposed to be measuring. If a test is not reliable, it cannot be valid.
Validity
If the tool/test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure, then it is valid.
Confounding of variables
Third-party effect on variables.
Counterbalancing
Rather than giving questionnaires to participants in the same order, we randomize the order in which questionnaires are created, a way to control for the confounding variable of order.
Experimental studies
Can infer causation between two variables of interest, may be due to unknown third variable.
Correlational studies
Cannot infer causation. Can only state that there may be a relation between the variables of interest. May be due to unknown third variable.
Population
Group that the sample is selected from.
Sample
Fraction of the population being studied.
Standard Deviation
Number that describes the average amount that scores differ from the group’s mean
Double-blind study
Neither participant nor admin knows participant’s group
Statistical significance
Determined by the outcome of statistical analyses performed on the data from a study, is the claim that an observed relation or difference between two variables is
probably not due to chance
Correlation coefficient
Number used to describe the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. Uses r to describe.
What does a correlation coefficient of r = 0 signify?
No relation between variables
Descriptive statistics
Used to summarize and describe the data collected in the study.
Generalization
Can the results be generalized to the entire population?
Inferential statistics
Based on the numbers collected in the sample.Based on the numbers collected in the sample. Looking to determine if the pattern we find in the sample’s data can
be generalized to the population. Asking: Can we infer that the trend we see in the sample’s data is also
true for the population?
Attribution theory
Theory of motivation (a way of looking at why people engage in motivated behaviour - by examining how a person explains events or the behaviour of self and others). This helps understanding of their current/future behaviour and that behaviour’s consequences.
Casual ascriptions
Tendency to explain events in a certain way
Bernard Wiener’s 3 Dimensions for classifying casual ascriptions
i. locus of causality (internal vs external)
ii. stability over time (stable vs unstable)
iii. controllability (controllable vs uncontrollable)
2 More Dimensions
iv. globality across situations (global vs specific)
v. intentionality (intentional vs unintentional)
Julian Rotter
Proposed that our casual ascriptions can be classified according to their locus of control (locus of causality).
Motivation is shaped by
Expectancy and value
Attributional retraining
Therapeutic technique where students are taught to provide certain casual ascriptions for academic success and failure (and to avoid other casual ascriptions)
Response set
Tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the correlation content of the questions
Replication
Repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated
Social desirability bias
Tendency to give socially approved questions to questions about oneself
When do placebo effects occur?
When participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
When does sampling bias occur?
When a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn.
