Midterm Exam Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Beringia

Answer

A

Beringia (Bering Land Bridge): 2000 km wide

18, 000 years ago, ice age began to melt resulting in many lakes
14, 000-12, 000 years ago, opening of human migration routes in North America

The first people from asia moved quickly along the Pacific ocean

Hunter-gatherer society began 20 000 years ago, migrated a few kilometers at a time (once they used their resources and ate all the animals, they moved on)

The genetic markers we have that exist in the Americas show that no one lived here before 20 000 years ago

The initial group of people was extremely small, a few dozens

There is evidence of humans in Canada about 10 000 years ago

Question 2

Q

Lake Agassiz

Question 3

Q

Paleoindians

Answer

A

First people to come here from Asia over the Bering

Question 4

Q

Clovis, New Mexico / Monte Verde, Chile

Question 5

Q

Na-Dene

Answer

A

Na-Dene Language family today is distinct from the previous migration, which shows there is a second migration from Asia that is entirely distinct from the Bering Land Bridge migration

Question 6

Q

Megafauna Extinction

Answer

A

A few thousand years Beringia, another major event occurred…

Megafauna Extinction: 70-80% of the largest animal species (woolly mammoths, bears, giant beavers, horses, camels, etc.) had gone extinct … these have been inhabiting the Americas for 4 million years

This occurred 10, 000-12, 000 years ago (when people were arriving and thriving in the Americas)

Possibilities of extinction: overhunting (unlikely because numbers of humans were small), climate change, so on

Question 7

Q

When should Canadian history start?

Answer

A

Canadian History, with regards to the land that area is today, should begin with Bering Land Strait. Canadian History, with regards to Canada as a society, should begin around the 1000s

Question 8

Q

3 ways of classifying First Nations

Answer

A

In national terms
In linguistic terms
In cultural terms

Question 9

Q

Classifying First Nations in National Terms

Answer

A

Categorizing groups by their political views

Example: Quebec (uniting different groups into the Cris) → 11 different national groups

Downside:

Question 10

Q

Classifying First Nations in Linguistic Terms

Answer

A

Categorizing people by the way they communicate seamlessly with each other
(anthropology perspective)

Example: Na-Dene

11 distinct language groups (7 in BC alone)
50 total languages in all

Downside: you may end up with groups who, language is the only thing they have in common (like Germans and English)

Question 11

Q

Classifying First Nations in Cultural Terms

Answer

A

Classifies people according to their way of life

Example: “Potential” North American vegetation (i.e. if there were no agriculture)

6 cultural groups in all of Canada

Since way of life depends on environment and geography, it separates nicely into geographical areas
The way people live affects they way their society builds

Downside: blurs language differences and political boundaries

Question 12

Q

First Nations Groups (pre-contact)

Answer

A

Northwest Coastal
Plateau
Plains
Northeast (Eastern Woodlands)
Algonquian / Iroquoian Subarctic
Arctic

Question 13

Q

First Nations (pre-contact)

Northwest Coastal: British Columbia

Answer

A

The FNs of NorthWestern Canada are the most complex

19 distinct languages
Sustained villages year-long
Highest population density in Canada pre-contact
Approx 200 000 people living along the Coast in 1500

Why the Pacific Coast? Seafood was a never-ending, easy to capture food supply
Why not the Atlantic in the same way? Climate is nicer in the West Coast

Different from the rest of the groups for these characteristics:
- A wealthier way of life
- Rich material culture
- Accumulated artifacts
- Log houses (not nomadic)
- Sculptures carved out of wood
- Complex social hierarchy (nobles, commoners, slaves)
Example: Potlatch (an elaborate feast to show status by giving away wealth)

Question 14

Q

First Nations (pre-contact)

Plateau: British Columbia

Answer

A

Relied on Salmon
But culturally, they were much more egalitarian
They were semi-nomadic and non-agriculture, small bands
They were more like the Plains people than the Coastal people

Question 15

Q

First Nations (pre-contact)

Plains: Alberta to Western-Manitoba

Answer

A

Lived on open grasslands
Hot, dry summers and cold winters
Organized their food around the Buffalo
Fully nomadic hunters
Used the Buffalo for everything (ate the meat, used skin for clothing and teepees, bones for tools, etc.)

Head-Smashed in Buffalo Jump, Alberta (a site developed 6-9000 years ago): they would herd the Buffalo to this point, they would have nowhere to go and then jump over this cliff (it was unused 4000 years ago and we do not know why)

Unlike Coastal people, the Plains people were relatively poor so they hunted Buffalo and did not have much else to fall back again
The arrival of the horse revolutionized their life 1500 years ago
Horse arrived from the Spanish, before the Spanish people

Question 16

Q

First Nations (pre-contact)

Northeast (Eastern Woodlands): South Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, South Arctic

Answer

A

Covers FNs all the way from Southern Manitoba, through Ontario, Quebec, all the way to the Maritimes and up to the South parts of the Arctic
This is the first group the Europeans came in contact with
The Europeans defined FNs in terms of this group
Divided into two language groups:

(1) Algonquian
Similar language group, but spread far apart amongst North East
- Pretty similar social and political structure
- Each nation considered itself a distinct people but did not have a lot of political unity
- Hunted and fished
- Few contacts with other members of their band or of a broader nation except in times of war

(2) Iroquoian
Lived in the St. Lawrence Valley of Ontario and Quebec and along the Great Lakes
- 5 Nations of the Iroquois (later the 6 Nations): Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca
Lived in larger groups, villages of maybe 1500
Wood log houses
More stability and sustainability…
1500-1000 years ago, they became farmers (this is when it first took off)
Started growing corn, squash, pumpkins, tobacco
These crops moved up from Mexico
Agriculture moved up from Mexico to Canada
Agriculture provides stability and higher population density (and in fact requires that more people are living in a smaller area because farmers are needed)
Women farmed, men hunted, traded, fought
Iroquoians would trade with Algonquins for fur, meat, fish, etc.

Question 17

Q

First Nations (pre-contact)

Northeast (Eastern Woodlands): South Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, South Arctic

Answer

A

Covers FNs all the way from Southern Manitoba, through Ontario, Quebec, all the way to the Maritimes and up to the South parts of the Arctic

This is the first group the Europeans came in contact with

The Europeans defined FNs in terms of this group
Divided into two language groups:

(1) Algonquian
Similar language group, but spread far apart amongst North East
- Pretty similar social and political structure
- Each nation considered itself a distinct people but did not have a lot of political unity
- Hunted and fished
- Few contacts with other members of their band or of a broader nation except in times of war

(2) Iroquoian
Lived in the St. Lawrence Valley of Ontario and Quebec and along the Great Lakes
- 5 Nations of the Iroquois (later the 6 Nations): Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca
- Lived in larger groups, villages of maybe 1500
- Wood log houses
- More stability and sustainability…
- 1500-1000 years ago, they became farmers (this is when it first took off)
- Started growing corn, squash, pumpkins, tobacco
- These crops moved up from Mexico (agriculture moved up from Mexico to Canada)
- Agriculture provides stability and higher population density (and in fact requires that more people are living in a smaller area because farmers are needed)
- Women farmed, men hunted, traded, fought

Iroquoians would trade with Algonquins for fur, meat, fish, etc.

Question 18

Q

First Nations (pre-contact)

Subarctic : Territories

Answer

A

Evergreen forest across the Subarctic (Canadian Shield)

No agriculture because not much soil
Low population density because a lot of space was needed for hunting
Lowest population density in the world
Not much social or political organization at all

Question 19

Q

First Nations (pre-contact)

Arctic

Answer

A

Above the treeline

The last area to be colonized about 4500 years ago
Language family distinct from the Na-Dene
It was argued that the Inuit were from a distinct migration, but this has been disproven
They migrated with everyone and dispersed
They maintained contact with the people of Greenland
Thule (ancestors of the modern Inuit) had populated the Central Arctic

Question 20

Q

Norse in America

Answer

A

The first non-First Nations people that we know came to Canada
Warrior Vikings that came from Scandinavia, specifically Norway
- Used the North Star to navigate by sea and calculated latitudes
- The Norse were a little like us 1000 years earlier…
- Travelling along North Atlantic in a time of warmer climate, and made it a little farther North than they had anticipated
- They were able to explore a little farther from Europe than people had done previously

870: Norse discovered Iceland
985: Eric the Red discovered Greenland (after being exiled from Norway)

Parts of Greenland were green, so Norse settled in Greenland for the next two centuries

Question 21

Q

Leif Ericsson, 1001

Answer

A

Eric the Red’s son

Leif Ericson sailed across the Atlantic shore of Canada where he found Helluland/Markland/Vinland

(Vinland has been historically understood as a point anywhere from Newfoundland to as south as Florida)

He returned home without seeing anybody

Question 22

Q

Helluland/Markland/Vinland

Answer

A

Leif Ericson (Norse, son of Eric the Red) sailed across the Atlantic shore of Canada where he found Helluland/Markland/Vinland

Understood as a point anywhere from Newfoundland to as south as Florida

Question 23

Q

L’Anse aux Meadows:
Helge & Anne Stine Ingstad
(1960s)

Answer

A

Archeologist couple who read the Norse sagas for clues of Norse settlement

They searched for Norse settlements and found a site - arguably the only site we know of - at the North tip of Newfoundland

They found houses, domestic belongings but no signs of renovation or progression

We are unsure of why it was a temporary settlement and why the Norse ended up leaving Newfoundland
(worsening climate? Spanish (Basque) Pirates? Difficulties with First Nations?)

Question 24

Q

European Expansion, ca. 1500

Its Global Significance

Answer

A

European Expansion: Expansion and domination over the planet

This was one of the most important events in world history

(1) “Reversed Continental Drift”
- Pulled the planet back together again in some ways
- Example: horse makes its way back to the Americas

(2) Transformed Global Demographics
- Think of how many Europeans live all over the world
- 1600: Europeans are 18% of Canada
- 1900: Europeans are 30% of Canada

(3) Made possible the transfer of a wide range of Staple Food Crops
- Crops were slow to develop in the Americas
- Example: the potato (started out in Chile and took long to spread across Americas)
- But with European expansion, the potato shoots over almost immediately to Ireland

(4) Offered Europe access to a vast storehouse of natural resources
- Contributes to Europe’s great wealth
- Fuels Industrial Revolution

Question 25

Q

European Expansion, ca. 1500

Why Europe?

Answer

A

(1) Motive
a. Desire for wealth
b. Desire for converts to Christianity

(2) Opportunity
a. Location
b. Social Organization
1. Developed Nation States
2. Centralizing Power
3. Population Expansion
4. Growing merchant class

(3) Technological developments
a. Navigation
b. Weaponry

Question 26

Q

European Expansion, ca. 1500

Portuguese

Answer

A

The Portuguese were the first European nation to set sail and arrive in the Americas

Perhaps searching for slaves and goods
They learned a lot about navigation and sailing
Portuguese made it to Newfoundland
Portuguese were heavily invested in fishing; being good fishermen, they did not tell others about the good fishing and silently returned every year to fish

Question 27

Q

European Expansion, ca. 1500

Spanish

Answer

A

The Spanish don’t have much of an impact on the Americas and Canadian history, but had a huge impact on European sailing and Christopher Columbus

Question 28

Q

European Expansion, ca. 1500

English
John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto), 1497, 1498

Answer

A

The word of success in the Americas reached the English

King Henry sent its first missionaries (John Cabot)
John Cabot was not English, he was Italian (Giovanni Caboto)
His reputation became poorly mixed with his son Sebastian who started travelling with him and later took all the credit for everything his father did
For a long time, we thought Sebastian Cabot was the important voyager but he was just taking credit
Cabot’s Plan: sail across higher latitudes to China
Columbus was too close to the equator, so Cabot went further North and on June 24th, 1497 he “discovered” the cod fisheries for England

Question 29

Q

European Expansion, ca. 1500

French
Jacques Cartier, 1534, 1535-6, 1541-2

Answer

A

A wealthy, many seaforts (twice as many as England), high population (twice the population of Portugal and Spain combined)

1530s: Jacques Cartier
- 1530s: French King commissions Jacques Cartier to take two ships and look for:
1) a passage to India/China and
2) riches (gold, silver) as the Spanish have found great riches in Mexico

Cartier’s came from from Nalo, a fishing town where the fishermen had already been going to Newfoundland (he may have gone before as a fisherman)
Three voyages, that we know a lot about because of his detailed diaries

Question 30

Q

John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto)
1497, 1498

Answer

A

June 24th, 1497: John Cabot
- Cabot took a crew of 18, sailed for 35 days, landed on the East Coast of Canada
- He “discovered” the cod fisheries for England
There were so many fish that you could drop a basket off the side of your ship and it would immediately fill with cod but this was highly lucrative in this period because Catholic had 153 days a year where they could not eat meat
- King Henry was so happy with Cabot, he offered him a bonus of 10 pounds
- Cabot sailed back to England in 1498 and disappeared (they lost all record of him, so it was assumed that his ship went down)

Recent evidence that he actually lived:
Record of one of his crew members that was on his ship alive in 1502
- Juan de la Cosa map from 1500, shows English flags planted around Atlantic Coast
- Maybe Cabot survived and we just do not have any record of it
- Whether dead or alive, after his 1498 voyage, his impact was over
- King Henry dies, England does not follow up Cabot’s voyage anytime soon
- Portuguese begin publicizing their interest in Canada, small settlements in NWL and NS that fail quickly

Question 31

Q

Jacques Cartier

1534, 1535-6, 1541-2

Answer

A

(1) Gulf of St. Lawrence (1534)
Sails to the Gulf of St, Lawrence, but does not enter St.LR, flagged down by locals to trade, met Iroquois people who were not used to trade with Europeans and kidnapped two members and brought them back to France to learn French

(2) St. Lawrence River (1535-6)
Hoping river would take him to Asia, met stadacona who saw the French as valuable trade partners and did not want them to go further, but Cartier travelled on and thought he saw China, returned to Stadacona and built a fort which made the FNs unhappy, hit with scurvy that winter, kidnapped Chief Donakonda

(3) St. Lawrence River (1541-42)
Wanted to go deeper into St.LR, find the passage to Asia and find riches

France (and all Europeans) did not attempt any more exploration in Canada for another half a century because they were busy at war with each other

Cartier’s voyages had established some French claim to the area and made it easier to understand North America for future expeditions

Question 32

Q

Jacques Cartier
1st Voyage
1534

Answer

A

(1) Gulf of St. Lawrence (1534)
- He sails to the Gulf of St, Lawrence, but does not enter St. Lawrence River
- Flagged down by the locals to trade
- Evidence that FNs people had already experienced trading with Europeans
- Cartier met Iroquois people who were not used to trade with Europeans
- Kidnapped two members and brought them back to France to learn French

Question 33

Q

Jacques Cartier
2nd Voyage
1535-6

Answer

A

(2) St. Lawrence River (1535-6)
- Hoping the river would take him to Asia
- He met stadacona, who saw the French as valuable trade partners and did not want them to go further
- Stadaconans wanted to establish themselves as middlemen
- Cartier travelled on anyways
- Called a nearby mountain Mont Royal (which became Montreal) where he saw rapids that he called La Chien and he thought they were China
- He returned to Stadacona and built a fort which made the FNs unhappy
- The French were expecting a France-like winter (since they were on the same latitude), but got a Quebec-like winter and were hit by scurvy
- To show their gratefulness, they kidnapped Chief Donakonda
- He misunderstood that the whole country was called “Kanada”

Question 34

Q

Jacques Cartier
3rd Voyage
1541-2

Answer

A

(3) St. Lawrence River (1541-42)
- His hope was to go deeper into St. Lawrence River
- He wanted to find the passage to Asia
- He hoped to find the “Kingdom of the *” where he would find riches
- He took 150 colonists (convicts from French prisons)
35 were killed over that winter
- He went home with heavy, worthless rocks
- Called Canada the “land God gave to Cain”
- He failed to find great riches, failed to sail to Asia, made poor relationships with FNs, poor climate, anyone who wanted to sail to Asia would find a big continent in the way
- France (and all Europeans) did not attempt any more exploration in Canada for another half a century because they were busy at war with each other

Question 35

Q

1597

Answer

A

First French Settlement

Question 36

Q

Jacques Cartier
3rd Voyage
1541-2

Answer

A

(3) St. Lawrence River (1541-42)
- His hope was to go deeper into St. Lawrence River
- He wanted to find the passage to Asia
- He hoped to find the “Kingdom of the *” where he would find riches
- He took 150 colonists (convicts from French prisons)
35 were killed over that winter
- He went home with heavy, worthless rocks
- Called Canada the “land God gave to Cain”
- He failed to find great riches, failed to sail to Asia, made poor relationships with FNs, poor climate, anyone who wanted to sail to Asia would find a big continent in the way

Question 37

Q

1597

Answer

A

First French Settlement on Sable Island, Nova Scotia

Question 38

Q

1605

Answer

A

Reattempted French Settlement on Port Royal (present day Nova Scotia)

Question 39

Q

1604-1615

Answer

A

Establishment of New France (Samuel de Champlain)

Question 40

Q

Samuel de Champlain

Answer

A

Founder of Quebec, of New France

New France owes its existence to Samuel de Champlain (born in 1570)
Became responsible for exploring, mapping and then settling in the St. Lawrence Region
Sailed back and forth from France to New France 22 times and wrote about all his expeditions and became governor of New France
Champlain found a place he thought would be the New Paris and named it Ludobica

Question 41

Q

Effects of Fur on First Nations Societies (positive)

Answer

A

(1) Trade

(2) Alliances

Question 42

Q

Effects of Fur on First Nations Societies (negative)

Answer

A

(1) Dependence
(2) Shifts in Power
(3) Religious Turmoil
(4) Disease

Question 43

Q

Effects of Fur on First Nations Societies (positive)

TRADE

Answer

A

The French did not plan on enslaving the FNs, the nature of the fur trade meant that the FNs people needed to be mobile
The French depended on the FNs for not only fur trade but for food, survival tips and tricks and information about the land and other groups

For a while, the FNs were happy with this arrangement because they were acting as middlemen between the French and other FNs group

This was extremely valuable (at first) to First Nations peoples, the goods they were trading for were very useful (knives, hatchets, bread, kettles, etc.) and the FNs were, at first, getting the prices they wanted

Question 44

Q

Effects of Fur on First Nations Societies (positive)

ALLIANCES

Answer

A

Trade cemented alliances, you are more likely to be on the side of the people you are trading with

1639: Champlain decided he had to take a side on the FNs people
- The French sided with the Hurons and Algonquins against the Iroquois
- Champlain revealed himself and killed 2 Iroquois (Mohawk) chiefs and injured another
- This is the first conflict between the French and the FNs people
- This act snowballs and creates a century of war between the French and the Iroquois

Question 45

Q

Effects of Fur on First Nations Societies (negative)

DEPENDENCE

Answer

A

First Nations developed dependence on the Europeans
- Spent less time fishing and hunting, and more time trading
- Example: Enigmas used to average 6 months on the coast and hunt in land the rest of the year, they gave up the coast once they began trading
- As a result, First Nations lost their traditional craft (by relying on Euro goods)
First Nations began trading for alcohol (the French introduced alcohol to the FNs people)

Question 46

Q

Effects of Fur on First Nations Societies (negative)

SHIFTS IN POWER

Answer

A

More war:

Guns
Turmoil between groups
Vendettas
Fns forced to move to new locations

Question 47

Q

Effects of Fur on First Nations Societies (negative)

RELIGIOUS TURMOIL

Answer

A

Introduction of Christianity

Question 48

Q

Effects of Fur on First Nations Societies (negative)

DISEASE

Answer

A

The St. Lawrence River had changed in one dramatic fashion from Cartier (1530s) to Champlain (1610s): the French brought disease with them and unknowingly wiped out the FNs people, and now Champlain is returning to skeptical, unhappy and unwelcoming FNs

The FNs noticed quickly that wherever the French went, people began to die

Question 49

Q

Alfred Crosby’s theory of Ecological Imperialism

Answer

A

Crosby’s Argument: Europeans overran First Nations around the globe not because it was a matter of Europeans vs. First Nations, but because it was a matter of Europeans, their plants, their animals and their diseases vs First Nations

Question 50

Q

Ludobica

Answer

A

Champlain established New France in 1608, with the dreams and hopes of founding his city “Ludobica”

Question 51

Q

Relations with Algonquin & Huron

Answer

A

Champlain established New France in 1608

In the decades that followed, there was no evidence that Quebec would expand, it only had 60 colonies decades later
France was at war with Holland and Germany so not much attention was paid to Canada
Champlain focused on maintaining ties to his FNs and emphasized their importance because he was trying to establish a colony based on what they could provide for him
One of the things he did was ask his Algonquin allies if he could send French to live with the FNs
The Algonquins did not want to lose their established position as middlemen, an began to worry which was rightly so because…
Once the French met up with the Huron (Wendat), they realized the Huron were more beneficial and had more potential to expand their trading network
The Algonquin lost their priority

Question 52

Q

Etienne Brule (1610)

Answer

A

was one of the first sent to live as an Ambassador with the Hurons

Predecessor of the “coureurs des bois” (runners of the woods)
He was eventually killed and eaten by his hosts

Question 53

Q

Company of 100 Associates (1627-on)

Answer

A

French believed they needed to have a “base” colony to make it a more stable, diversified economy

In 1627: the staple was bought by The Company of 100 Associates (it had 100 investors back in France)

Question 54

Q

Slow Population Growth in New France

Answer

A

There were only 107 settlers in New France

They had to bring in 4000 settlers in the next decade and diversify the economy beyond fur and encourage Roman Catholic Missionary work
Terribly timing… English and French war breaks out (the French King did not repay his English brother in law)
English begin raiding the areas of New France to disrupt the fur trade
The Company never makes any kind of impact on the settlement in this half-century of Champlain founding Quebec City
Only 1000 French colonists ever come to France over the 50 years → it was a bust
There was knowledge in France of the war with the Iroquois which prevented a desire to move to France

Question 55

Q

French Religious Orders

Answer

A

Essential to the development of New France
Monks, Nuns

Once an aboriginal was Christianized, they could marry other french

Champlain believed that if you could make Aboriginals Christian, teach them French, intermarry them, work the Inidaness out of them, then they could be foundational for the French colony

Question 56

Q

French Missionaries

Answer

A

Recollects (1615-on)
Jesuits (1627-on)
Ursulines (1639-on)

Question 57

Q

Recollects (1615-on)

Answer

A

Champlain’s first group that he invited over
They believed it would be very easy to win the FNs over with Christianity
But they quickly realized that the FNs were not willing to adopt to an extremely foreign and strange way of life which included values about words they didn’t even have in their language (e.g. sheep, shepherd)
They reached out for help from the Jesuits…

Question 58

Q

Jesuits (1627-on)

Answer

A

Wealthiest of France
Christian missionaries
They were quickly given a monopoly over missionary work in New France
Their work was much more successful

Question 59

Q

Ursulines (1639-on)

Answer

A

Group of nuns that arrived to Christianize young girls

Question 60

Q

The Jesuit Relations

Answer

A

159 years of volumes of recording of New France in this period, written by French Christians

Priests would write field letters describing New France and send them back to France
France discovered these published works were a good way to make money
Readers were interested in trials of clergy and missionary work
Problems: they often did not understand what they were writing about because things were new to them, and it was from their perspective

The best series of sources.

Question 61

Q

Ville Marie (Montreal) (1642)

Answer

A

1642: Ville Marie was built in Montreal

In the early years, the Roman Catholic missionaries thought that the truth of Christianity and way of French life would be easily appealed to the FNs and they would adapt quickly.

Quebec city was the heart of France up until now, the French realized they needed to spread out more: if FNs are not going to come to us, we will have to go to them to Christianize them.

The first reserve was built by Christians for the FNs, they were building hospitals, schools, etc.
Schools failed because FNs did not accept many of their values (e.g. beating children). FNs did not go to their hospitals because they associated Jesuits with death of Aboriginals.

Question 62

Q

In 1632, Champlain asked the FNs in the French could go live with them, they reluctantly agreed.

Name some Commonalities and Differences.

Answer

A

They found commonalities at first: importance of spirituality, prayer, fasting, afterlife

But their differences overran their commonalities. The Huron were polytheists and do not have a concept that resembled Jesus or hell, FNs accepted divorce and remarriage. What pulled them the furthest a part was disease.

Question 63

Q

The contact of cultures between the Huron and Jesuits (specifically): disease

Answer

A

The Huron population was hit by smallpox and dropped from 20 000 to 10 000 shortly after the arrival of the Jesuit missionaries.
Every time the Priest gave someone First Rights, they would die, but the Priests would remain healthy
The Huron thought the Jesuits were strange and causing the death, and began to harass them and planned to kill them (though they did not because the missionaries were beneficial for fur trade; they had to trade to survive)
Disease pulled them apart, but in some ways brought them closer: some Huron began converting, thinking that their religion failed them and that the French God was stronger

Question 64

Q

Motivations to convert to Christianity

Answer

A

Only baptized FNs could trade for guns and have alcohol and French were giving gifts during trade to Christian FNs

Answer 63

A

As a result of missionaries, the Huron people got pulled apart and ruptured into Christian Huron and non-Christian strands

The French could not help but make it worse by favoriting the Christian members

The Huron were weakened against their long-term enemy, the Iroquois

Most of what we know about Huron, we know through recordings of the Iroquois

Answer 64

A

Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Onelda, Mohawk (eaters of human flesh - named by Algonquins)
These 5 nations had been established 150 years earlier by the PeaceMaker Confederacy

Answer 65

A

Iroquois goal was to get groups to join their Peace Maker Confederacy, Huron declined
Iroquois wanted access to the Huron fur trade
Iroquois had a lot of fire power by this time; they were getting guns (they had 4x the fire power that the Huron did)

1640s: The Huron is weakened, the Iroquois is strengthened

Answer 66

A

Iroquois attacked the Huron

French Priests were captured, tortured, killed
Tortures involved mocking the French Christian religions
Example: priests were baptized with boiling water
Huron burned their own villages and fled (some to Christian Island on Georgian Bay, some wandered back to the Jesuits in Quebec, some joined with Algonquin, many joined with the Iroquois)

This had major impacts on the development of New France…

Answer 67

A

Undoubtedly Negative

Disruption of fur trade
Loss of Priests
Lost NFs allies
More raids from the Iroquois into the 1650s
The Iroquois almost made New France fail entirely as a colony and close up shop (farmers were farming with guns)
But thankfully, French came to a 5 year-truce with the Iroquois in early 1660s

Answer 68

A

The colony is forced to be stronger than it would have been otherwise

Young French traders (courier des Bois) take over for the Huron as the middlemen in fur trade
Huron has helped feed the Northern Algonquin allies and Courier des Bois. Now with them gone, New France had to expand agriculture
New France realized they and to defend themselves and became more organized in acting on resistance

Answer 69

A

Dollard becomes a hero for New France (we do not know what his motivations were)
New France went from being under constant threat from Iroquois to tripling their population of French settlers in an aim to solidify New France as their colony
1640s-1650s New France was barely hanging one until…
France would be taking greater interest in New France from 1663 onwards…

Answer 70

A

King Louis XIV believed in the divine right of Kings and that all power should go through him so he bypassed the nobility and made his rule a bureaucracy
His goal for all French colonies was to make them stronger more like France itself
Designated this goal as the responsibility of his minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert
France makes New France like any place in France

Answer 71

A

Minister of New France, designated with the goal to make New France stronger

Answer 72

A

(1) Mercantilism
Empires prosper by having colonies that supplied them with raw materials and ultimately could serve as a market for finished products)

(2) Strategic Value
1664: England captured Dutch colonies in Eastern US and it was clear that France and England would be warring over property in North America
So they beefed up French presence in North America

(3) Prestige
Believed there was opportunity here and wanted to make it grow with plenty of resources that would add to French Empire**

Answer 73

A

Much of the governing of the French colony was done by the following three…

(1) Governor
(2) Intendent
(3) Bishop

This system was very successful at the time. This system was not democratic, all these positions were appointed by the French Crown.

Answer 74

A

In charge of such matters as defense
A noble with experience as a soldier

Example:
Louis de Buade, 1672-82
Comte de Frontenac, 1689-98

Answer 75

A

Peace time, main Royal Official
Responsible for justice,
Lawyer

Example:
Jean Talon, 1665-72

Answer 76

A

Appointed by the King as Prime Minister
Responsible for moral influence of the colony

Example:
Francois de Laval, 1659-85

Answer 77

A

Quebec had its own distinctive landholding system
Futile landlord-tenant system
Land was given to people by the King
The landlords who owned these pieces of property were called Seigneurs and the habitants of the land were called Censitaires

Answer 78

A

The landlords who owned these pieces of property were called Seigneurs
Most Seigneurs were nobles (about 84%)
They then found settlers who would then farm the land
They would split the Seigneurs into lots and hire the farmers

Answer 79

A

These lots of farm became known as Censitaires (habitants)
They were mostly surrounding the St. Lawrence River
Seigneurs was obliged to have a suitable house, a flour mill
They did not receive much money from rent income
Censitaires had to pay rent, tax, fees, work the land and sometimes the Seigneurs land
The burden on tenants in New France was less than those in France; they had a good diet of fish, meat, bread

Allan Greer: there was no Seigneurial System (all settlements in America had similar systems)

Answer 80

A

the first intendant of New France

Answer 81

A

(1) Improve Relations with Iroquois
(2) Encourage Economic Growth
(3) Encourage Population Growth

Answer 82

A

Carignan-Salieres Regiment

He decided the best bet was to go to war with them
He brought over a regiment of 400 soldiers over from France
They were very unhappy to come and rioted about coming
Iroquois were already fighting with other FNs groups
Iroquois were ready to settle, meet with peace

1701: Great Peace
Peace Settlement between the Iroquois and French

Answer 83

A

Making New France more of a model colony…

Self-sustained, able to support itself and then help support the French colony
Talon tried to diversify beyond the economy: he encouraged ship building, mining, timber
Other than fur, everything was available cheaper elsewhere
Operations in Canada were too expensive so it was given up and refocused on fur trade
Beer was an exception; it sold well locally

Answer 84

A

Talon wanted to increase population so he encouraged immigration…

Free livestock such as horses was sent over to get the livestock going
However, New France was not an easy sell (cold, war, threatened, uncleared land, lack of slaves)
Attempts to encourage new immigration to New France failed
For the entire century between 1600-1760, only 20 000 total French immigrants came to New France, and only 9000 French immigrants actually stayed
There was an 8:1 male-female issue
Colbert sought out young, single women to marry the men and repopulate
They were called the filles du roi…

Answer 85

A

The young, single women that Colbert invited to New France

The filles du roi was very successful
1000 women came from France to New France (only 15% changed their minds, 4 requested separation, 30 returned to France)
It is very overemphasized that they are the founders of Quebec
The population of New France doubled to about 10 000, mostly situated between Montreal and Quebec

This was especially thanks to High Birth Rates (thanks to a good diet, relatively healthy environment, low disease rate)
New France had one of the highest birth rates ever recorded
After this, the population of New France is self-made, it replaces itself and increases on its own

Answer 86

A

record of the (Filles du Roe) women being sent over by the King

Answer 87

A

After the arrival of the filles du roe, the population of New France increases and becomes self-sustained. We begin to see distinctiveness about New France…

Answer 88

A

(1) Linguistically distinct

(2) Landholding System
slightly distinct from France (the land is granted free of charge to the Seigneurs, in France it must be bought)

(3) No military obligations

(4) Farming
Increasingly, they moved into farming
By 1700, agriculture replaced fur trade as the main industry
A culture has been developed along the St. Lawrence (the main strip)
This becomes a staple idea of how Canada is made
(5) Socially Distinct
- Increasing habits of independence
- Couples who wanted to get married simply stood up and proclaimed themselves as married
- The habitants were not viewed at all as peasants for the independent lives they lived
New France people began seeing themselves as a distinct people and began calling themselves “canadiens”

Answer 89

A

“Laurentian Thesis”: The St. Lawrence River’s influence as a transportation system in the development of Canada

Easy communication back with old world, while still allowing people to escape into the land
This makes Canadians different, there is more of a back and forth between the interland and France

Answer 90

A

New France had increasing habits of independence

Couples who wanted to get married simply stood up and proclaimed themselves as married
The habitants were not viewed at all as peasants for the independent lives they lived
New France people began seeing themselves as a distinct people and began calling themselves “canadiens”
The demands for social, religious or political independence were not developed in New France, in the same way as America, because it was not

Answer 91

A

Quebec City, Montreal, Trois Rivieres
Quebec City: 8000
Montreal: 5000
Trois Rivières: smaller

Answer 92

A

New France has been about rural life and rural identity, but also had an active urban life tied to North American interior
One quarter of New France was urban
More urban existence than American colonies in the South
The towns of New France were bigger than they had to be
New France was a small colony centred on the fur trade that did not necessarily need towns, but became replicas of French existence and French culture

Quebec city was merchants, clergy, government was centred

More interest in culture in New France than British colonies in the South

Jesuit Library (books being published) → rivaled Harvard Library in Massachusetts

Grand buildings are on the edge of wilderness (example: passenger pigeons)

Answer 93

A

Kidnapped by Iroquois, lived with them for a while and escaped
1668: Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Medard Chouart explored Lake Superior looking for furs with Sieur de Groseilliers (his brother-in-law)
Collected many furs but were fined and their furs were confiscated because they were not licensed
Tried to convince New France to extend fur trade up past Hudson’s Bay, but were declined
They went to the English colony of Massachusetts, and eventually went to England too

Contributed to the increased geographical knowledge of Northeastern North America (Example: 1670 Map)

Answer 94

A

In 1700s, English Colonies began to boom…

Better climate, agriculture, better economy, slavery, middle-Class

By 1700s, the 13 English Colonies to the South had a population of 20x that of New France

Answer 95

A

In 1668, Prince Rupert (cousin of King Charles II) sponsored the English expedition…
They arrived in Hudson’s Bay in the fall, hundreds of First Nations shows up to trade, they collected fur and sailed back

In 1670, the English King gave a charter to the Hudson’s Bay Company
It was called Rupert’s Land (about half of present-day company)
They set up forts along Hudson’s Bay and James Bay which allows them to trek further into interior
It was easily accessible through numerous waterways and passages
English traders came to them and had relatively easy passages to them and back to England

Hudson’s Bay Company had 25% profit every year for the first 50 years, it changed the whole game of fur trade because suddenly the existence

New France saw these colonies rapidly growing and moving up from the South, and England is now taking credit and ownership for the colonies in the Northwest, as well

Foreign enemy powers in New France

Answer 96

A

New France’s path essentially determined by the top man with the strongest power: John Tallon in 1672

He worked hard to make a compact colony of New France
He was sent back to France and Frontenac came in, promoting expansion of the fur trade (doing the opposite of Tallon)
He wanted to grow New France for both strategic and economic reasons, he thought New France should have greater control of the interior of the fur trade region
He sent explorers down South, toward the Mississippi Valley

Relatively cosmopolitan towns that moved outwards over the GLs and down the Mississippi River - France was claiming areas widely beyond its control. They maintained it by building and cementing alliances with Aboriginal people. New France is being squeezed from the NW by the Hudson’s Bay Company (an English fur trading company) and from the SW by the English colonies.

Answer 97

A

La Salle found the opening into the Mississippi Valley and established Louisiana

France built up a string to the West (Forts Frontenac, Niagara, Detroit and Michilimackinac), and in the core of it’s St. Lawrence River

The French had just a few forts compared to the HB Company, but they scooped up the majority of the fur because they made sure that their traders worked as a cultural glue between the Aboriginals and the French (while the English did not care to do so)

French traders were sort of Ambassadors
They intermarry with FNs people
They used fur trade to maintain FN allies, and used FN allies to maintain fur trade
To survive, they needed allies and trade and got both from the FNs
This was culminated in 1701…

Answer 98

A

Frontenac
Niagara
Detroit
Michilimackinac

Answer 99

A

New France makes a treaty with the Iroquois
Iroquois numbers had been dwindling because of disease, so they had been doing less damage to NF
Iroquois agreed to neutrality in any conflict between English and French
This involved 39 different peoples from around the Great Lakes, and was a treaty among all those people, most basically with the Iroquois on one side and the rest on the other side
A treaty of peace among all the people living in and around the Great Lakes area
From a NF perspective, peace with the Iroquois is the most important to maintain
The colony of New France had more Aboriginal subjects than it did French subjects

Answer 100

A

those who are getting supplies and taking them with them and living off of those

Answer 101

A

less reliant, got good as they want, spent less time in their canoe

Answer 102

A

Acadians are caught between the French and the English conflict

Acadia was the present-day maritimes
Bay of Fundy
The boundaries of Acadia are unclear until 1755, it is a cause and effect of them being fought over by the British and the French
Acadia developed in the 1700s much like New France
Small population, low immigration, high birth rate, isolated from France (but even more so than New France)
Approx. 2000 Canadians in 1700
Acadians develop their own distinct society and way of life
Dyke-Building (torches)

Answer 103

A

It was centred on reclaimed marshlands along the Bay of Fundy
They “dyked up” the land, building it with dams to keep fresh water at low tide and keep the salt water from coming into lands at high tide
They turned wet marshy land into farmland (a system developed in New France)
Resulted in highly fertile farmland for the Acadians
They adopted Seigneur system, but it was not paid any attention to
Acadians got along well with the Natives, especially because Maritimes Natives were not interested in the farmland
In the 1600s and 1700s the Acadians certainly knew war
They were stuck close to British possessions
Acadia was vulnerable in times of conflict
It was seized and attacked by the Scottish, the Dutch and by the English and English American colonies numerous times
Torchis Home Construction: built homes with wood held together by mud with mud floors
Invaders would burn down their houses and leave, Acadians would rebuild them
Acadians being bullied every few years over the 100 years
Acadia was repeatedly used as a bargaining chip at the end of wars, especially between England and France
Little community between Acadians and other French societies

Answer 104

A

(1) Good Natural Defenses
- Climate
- Bodies of water
- Maritimes and St. Lawrence River

(2) Strong FN Alliances
- Algonquin, Abenaque and numerous allies around St. Lawrence and Great Lakes
- Treaty of Peace
- The French were going beyond the GLs to the west of the American colonies (e.g. Ohio) and employed gift diplomacy
- They gave the FNs people supplies, guns, rent for fur trade, paid them fees to travel
- All to establish alliances

(3) Unified Command
- From 1663 on, when NF is made a royal province, it is clear that it has one, single political leadership
- The American colonies to the south were developing many different colonies that had their own ideas and interests (so what we will later on see is American colonies dividing on wanting fight New France)

Answer 105

A

(1) Good Natural Defenses
- Climate
- Bodies of water
- Maritimes and St. Lawrence River

(2) Strong FN Alliances
- Algonquin, Abenaque and numerous allies around St. Lawrence and Great Lakes
- Treaty of Peace
- The French were going beyond the GLs to the west of the American colonies (e.g. Ohio) and employed gift diplomacy
- They gave the FNs people supplies, guns, rent for fur trade, paid them fees to travel
- All to establish alliances

(3) Unified Command
- From 1663 on, when NF is made a royal province, it is clear that it has one, single political leadership
- The American colonies to the south were developing many different colonies that had their own ideas and interests (so what we will later on see is American colonies dividing on wanting fight New France)

Answer 106

A

(1) Small Population (and claiming large land area)
- New France is 1:20 of the size of the American colonies, and that gap kept growing
- They were claiming a large area and were spread a lot thinner

(2) Weak Economy
- No matter what NF tried to do, they were dependent of the fur trade
- Anything they tried to establish would not work and they were barely able to feed themselves
- The fur trade is important as a canadian symbol because it spreads European interest in Canada
- The cod fishery on CB Island alone was worth more than the entire fur trade to New France

(3) Dependent on Mother Country
- New France was absolutely dependent on France for food, in war, for soldiers, etc.
- British colonies had larger populations and were more dependent, but could also rely on strong British navy when they needed

Answer 107

A

Even as the French in NF make peace with the Iroquois and cement all these allies in 1701 at Great Peace, France and England go back to war in 1702

At Port Royal in Acadia, 300 Acadian soldiers were defeated by 3400 British soldiers
Britain makes an effort to take New France once and for all

1711: they come across Lake Champlain to New France
Britain takes as many people to fight New France as New France has in its entire population

Britain wants to get rid of New France entirely
900 men were killed in storms on their way and British troops coming over land turned back because of climate

After the war, the Treaty of Utrecht made much more damage to New France than the war…

Answer 108

A

King Louis II
France gave up Newfoundland, all claim to Hudson’s Bay and Acadia
But unfortunately, the treaty talked about Acadia in the ancient boundaries (which may have seemed at the time to be NS, but there was disagreement if it included NB too)
Treaty also gave the British control of the Iroquois Confederacy
France kept New France, Cape Breton Island, PEI
This treaty began with a 30 year period of peace between Britain and France, but it still felt like a repris (for the French, in particular, to prepare for its next war against the British)

Answer 109

A

The Acadians are now in British hands
The treaty gives the Acadians one year to decide if they would leave
The British wanted them to stay (they liked the population, they were good farmers, feared what they would do upon leaving)
The French hoped that they would leave and expected them to leave
British governors were happy, but made them give an oath to the British Crown
The Brits asked the Acadians to give oath 5 times and were refused every time
Ultimately, Brits decided to allow them to stay
They let Acadia maintain Catholicism (Britain tolerated it much more than they tolerated Catholicism in Britain)

Answer 110

A

1710s: Following the war, France built a massive Louisburg
- Louisburg is built to be the key to French North American interests from 1710s onwards
- It would be the main French fishing port in North America, shipping port to Carribean, was defended well and irritated British forces, the symbol of French power in North America
- The French built it and invited the Acadians to move there, the Acadians sent representatives to go look: it was rocky, poor farmland, and not home to their culture so they decided to stay where they were

Answer 111

A

Acadians became known as the “neutral French” (term used by British, and then Acadians too)

Answer 112

A

First 30 years of this situation has been called Acadians “Golden Age”
Acadia maintained Catholicism

Answer 113

A

However, their loyalty was questioned
Brits and French viewed them as unloyal
Acadians are living in this highly strategically moment for the Empires, just trying to live their own, quiet, agricultural lives
By the 1740s, it was clear that this period of peace was coming to an end
The American colonies to the South were pushing at the boundaries (example: at the West, the colonies were becoming highly populated and pushing Westward to what New France claimed as its own)
They are also pushing Northward, to Louisburg
The Americans wanted a monopoly of the fisheries

Answer 114

A

Britain and France engaged in a new war in Europe
The American colonies took it up in North America right away
The governor of Massachusetts sent people to take Enigmas in Louisburg, and people were paid for the amount of scalps they returned with
If Louisbourg were to be cut off, all supplies would be cut off to New France and the fur trade would end
13 000 French soldiers sailed to Louisburg to fight the British, most died on the way
Massachusetts captures the fort and Britain gains control of it

Answer 115

A

France sacrificed a great deal to get Louisbourg back
AND Britain gave it back
The American colonies were INFURIATED and dissatisfied with Britain, which eventually leads to the American Revolution…
There was no sense in 1748 that the war was over
English maps depicted easy access to French Canada just after making peace with them, which shows that they were planning to act
Following this treaty was a period of “False Peace”…

Answer 116

A

Britain and France are trying to strengthen their position in maritimes (Nova Scotia)…

In 1749, they officially called mainland Nova Scotia “Nova Scotia” (to purge it of any association with Acadians).

The British found Halifax in 1749, settled 2000 soldiers there, fortified it to be an equal to Louisbourg
They also settled around 1500 “foreign Protestants” around Lunenburg Nova Scotia to dilute the French presence of NS
Britain was quickly trying to change the French dynamics of the colony
The government has sketches (from 1748) of Acadian settlements as “proposed Protestant Settlements” → plans to kick them out
Having failed to bring the Acadians to Louisbourg, the French tried to bring them to Beausejour, but failed since Acadians wanted to stay neutral
British asked Acadians to sign British Oath again, but Acadians denied because they wanted to stay neutral

Answer 117

A

War breaks out between French and English → began in 1756 in Europe but began two years early in Canada; they were ready to go to war in North America.

Seems like everything was against the French at this time and their loss was inevitable

The English American colonies had 20x the population of France
New France was probably capable of feeding itself at this time, but probably could not even feed their soldiers during war, while the American colony in Pennsylvania claimed they could “feed an army of 100 000”
France was still claiming the interior of North America, but Americans were moving inward from the West and impeding on it
However, even with all their advantages, English did not get off to a good start

(1) 1754: In Virginia, george Washington (age 22) leads the Militia to Ohio to solidify American presence there and fails miserably and are captured by First Nation allies of the French and leave, admitting French claim to the area of Ohio
(2) 1755: Americans attempt to take 4 French forts that had been “irritable to them” and they are only able to take one: the fort Beausejour
(3) 1755: French and their FNs allies captured British fort: Fort William Henry and captured 200 American prisoners and killed them at the fort

Answer 118

A

When French and Fns capture Fort William Henry, really gets Americans against the French and the First Nations, especially the Iroquois

Americans have a desire to rid all of them from the continent

After capturing Fort Beausejour, the British governor (Charles Lawrence) decided there is less reason to tolerate Acadian neutrality (the “neutral French”)
He called Acadian leaders to Halifax and gave them an ultimatum: Acadians must actively support British in the war or leave
Acadians refused and claimed neutrality like they had been doing for decades, and offered British all of their weapons as a sign

But Gov, Charles Lawrence, the governor of Nova Scotia, found that this was an insufficient loyalty to Britain and decided all who refused the oath were to be expelled

Answer 119

A

13 000 immediately removed
- The first time in Modern Warfare that an entire group of people were to be removed (made refugees) because they are viewed to be a security risk
- The NS government, with the help of 2000 anti-French American militiamen, made the expulsion happen: burned houses, seized land, seized ships
- Britain decided not to send them to Quebec City or Louisbourg, with a fear that they would revolt and fight for the enemy
- The Acadians were distributed widely: New England, American colonies, France, Louisiana
- 7000 expelled in 1755 alone, and numbers continued for the remainder of the war
- When the Acadians travelled on these bad shifts, there was a very high mortality rate from diseases that were unknown to Acadians (Typhoid, Smallpox)
Approx.
- 77 Acadian families that we know of stayed in France
- Many more found France completely alien and made their way to Louisiana over decades (returned around 1785)
- Now about 1 million Cajun ancestors in Louisiana now
- Others fled to PEI, NFL, NB (eastern NB the heart of Acadian population today)
- Acadians returned to NS after some time but found that people were farming their land, so they moved on
- Acadian society was shaped around and by farming, but then become fishermen because they were booted to NB where the farming is poor but fishing is good

Answer 120

A

The French had many successes…
- They raided some American colonies with FNs and defeated some British
- Marche de Moncton
- After expanding their presence in 1754-55, Marche de Moncton decided to retract back on St. Lawrence Valley, contract inward to their homeland
- This gave British a rapris after suffering some defeats in this war
- New British Prime Minister: William Pitt
Pitt decided that Britain will win in North America
- He pushes more money into the war in North America: more ships, troops, more British Army

In 1756, Britain tries to take Louisbourg and were repelled by French forces in bad weather
They tried again in 1758…

Answer 121

A

In 1756, Britain tries to take Louisbourg and were repelled by French forces in bad weather
They tried again in 1758…

25 000 soldiers stationed in Halifax sailed to Louisbourg
The single greatest British raid in North America
They meet almost all of the French soldiers who are in North America, all clustered in Louisbourg
The French could only take 6600 of the British, outnumbering them 4:1
Britain takes the fort of Louisbourg, however, the French have held them off long enough that the brits cannot move into the t. Lawrence Valley because winter is coming
PM Pitt was happy with the news: “the greatest news that this kingdom has welcomed”
To celebrate, Britain expelled a couple thousand more Acadians from Nova Scotia :(
More justified from the British perspective since now there is official war b/w British and France
Elsewhere British forces are recapturing French colonies in North America and the British are winning
In 1759, the British focused entirely on Quebec
Moncton moved all of his forces there

Approx. 15 000 soldiers, 10 000 of which are Canadiens
British forces were put under the control of James Wolfe

Answer 122

A

British Prime Minister during Seven Years War

Answer 123

A

The French left a part along the St. Lawrence River unclaimed and unprotected…

James Wolfe writes home to his mom: Marquis de Montcalm has a big army of bad soldiers, but I have a small army of good soldiers
- Wolfe is indecisive and does not know what to do yet
- He was ailed by physical ailments that summer, and was depressed
- He was not commanding
English was knocking off the small minor French towns in the meantime
- Wolfe knew he needed to get his troops in position for a European style battle, and knew winter was coming and would have to attack Quebec before he lost his naval support
- His men found a small cove: Anse au Foulon
- He situated his men on the Plains of Abraham

Answer 124

A

Approx. 15 000 soldiers, 10 000 of which are Canadiens
British forces were put under the control of James Wolfe, a 32 year old general who was a soldier since he was 14 years old

Answer 125

A

Wolfe snuck the English forces to the the Plains of Abraham for a European style of battle

September 12 1959: he landed his men there late at night
He fooled the French sentiries by having his people speak French to them, the French border did not have any passwords

September 13 1959: he situated his unprotected men on the Plains of Abraham near hills where the French could shoot cannons down from the hills and stay hidden in their fort

But the French did not wait for more men the British forces to become entrenched, Montcalm commanded them to
British waited for the French to come within firing range, fired at them, French retreated, scattered and surrendered to the British a few days later
Both sides lost 1500 men in the battle
Wolfe and Montcalm both died
The whole battle took 15 minutes

British defeat of French conquests in North America. British ends French possession of Canada.

Answer 126

A

Instant commemoration of this battle and Wolfe in Britain…

The conquest of the British over the French was extremely important for

(1) Canadian History
(2) Global History (at the time)

It is an extremely important moment of English history

Wolfe was famous in 1760, but there was a feeling then that he would always be famous in Britain
Wolfe had defeated the French in 1759, and died doing so and his victory was celebrated
His death continued to be an important part of Canadian and World History…

Most famous painting with a scene that takes place on Canadian soil: Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe (1770)

It was hugely popular, and merited a “copycat” of the French side of the French general who had lost
This was momentous in Canada and beyond Canada

Ideological Opposites:

(1) British: Protestants, constitutionalists
(2) French: Catholics, absolutist monarchy

But, after all this, the English and the French will both reside in Canada…

Answer 127

A

A huge anti-climax: many British died of scurvy that winter

Answer 128

A

7000 French troops who had been outside Quebec (from New France) marched upon the streets of Quebec

Just down the street from the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, the French forces beat some British forces and went on to Quebec to continue into victory

British forces come sailing up the St. Lawrence River to Quebec and Levis is forced to retreat and surrender once and for all

Answer 129

A

British wanted to fill the Acadians land (who had just been expelled) as quickly as possible, so they began advertising it
- New England Planters

Answer 130

A

Poor farmers in the American colonies (from new England, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut) were attracted

About 7500 move to Nova Scotia and begin farming the land: the Planters
The Planters were moving from pretty developed American colonies to pretty undeveloped Nova Scotia (no sense of a strong government system, social system)
About half of the planters moved back home

Nova Scotia in the 1760s slowly increases from planters, some British settlers, some Acadians who returned

Answer 131

A

The Candiens did not know what to expect, especially after seeing what happened to the Acadians

The wealthy elite returned back to France
In a way, New France loses its economic business and politically elite
British Prime Minister (Pitt) is unsure of what to do with New France
Treaty of Paris

Answer 132

A

Britain, in its negotiations with France, realizes it should/will give up either Canada or Guadeloupe to France…

Canada was costing them money and resources, because they had to keep an army there (since they will be stuck with the situation that there will always be French there)
Guadeloupe had sugar which was a big money maker, Canada was taking money
Canada was not easily accessible, it was huge but all of the land was hard to get to and the climate was poor
Guadeloupe was small with good climate, so you could travel anywhere in it

Britain decided to keep Canada, mainly to avoid future war with France.

France did not care much.

Britain is responsible for administering a French population in North America.

Britain brought Americans up to Canada, but the settlers did not like the French nor did they like the climate, they preferred to move West.

Britain realized they would have to get used to a large French population.

Answer 133

A

(1) Integrating Quebec into the British Empire
(2) Defining the borders of British Colonies in North America

Under Governor James Murray and Gov. Guy Carleton

Answer 134

A

First governor of Quebec (1764-66)

Answer 135

A

Governor of Quebec (1768-70 and 1774-78)

Answer 136

A

It was decided that Quebec would be like other colonies

That is, it was promised and elected an assembly, would give British law, Canadiens would be forced to sign an oath of allegiance to the British Crown
Catholics (almost entire Quebec/French population) could not vote or hold office, but Church was not being outlawed
Catholic Church had freedoms that likely would not have been allowed in Britain itself
Quebecers were not being exiled
French Canadians were more or less happy with this proclamation

James Murray

First governor, James Murray, felt that to keep Quebec happy, he must keep their elite happy
He retained the Seigneurial system so that Seigneurs would maintain the land that their family did a century earlier
Murray did not think much of the British merchants who were trying to move in

Answer 137

A

Limits Quebec to around
British Territory: Quebec (St. Lawrence), Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and Rupertsland

West of the Ohio Valley is Indian Territory
This is the first time that a European power has defined land as being Aboriginal territory (the first recognition of an Aboriginal “right”)
Not so much as recognizing an Aboriginal territory, as much as it is trying to keep the British territory small and manageable
This infuriated Americans
They did not stop pouring into the Ohio Valley just because it was claimed as Indian Territory
What to do with Quebec occupied a considerable amount of time in Great Britain
British Assembly in which the 5% minority of British Protestants could vote, and 95% French Catholics could not
Murray realized this would be a problem and did not want to give power to British merchants
He was sent back to Great Britain and replaced by Guy Carleton

Guy Carleton

Second governor, Guy Carleton thought the same thing as Murray
Carleton helped draft the Quebec Act in 1774

Answer 138

A

An attempt to make the majority of both sides happy so that business will prosper
It gave provisions for the French majority and British minority
Quebec will have a distinct status within the British Empire

(1) Government: Quebec will have no elected Assembly, rather, rule will be done by the Governor and its counsel

(2) Religion: Roman Catholic Religion would be allowed
They would even make taxing mandatory, so that the Church could have some wealth

(3) Land: Seigneurial system would be maintained

(4) Law: Quebec will have French civil law, separate from British criminal law
- To keep the British merchants happy, the Act expanded the Quebec border back into the Ohio region
- French got along better with the FNs than the Americans
- This infuriated the Americans even more than the Royal Proclamation

Answer 139

A

April 1775: American Revolution (Americans saw it as a revolution, British saw it as a rebellion)

(1) Americans resented high British taxes, enforcement of British laws, American nationalism was growing
(2) American unhappiness with the British policy with respect to Quebec was a key cause for the American revolution

(3) The Americans helped the British in the French and Indian war, and defeated the French and FNs peoples
Then, at American expense, the British gives land to the French and the FNs
Americans were infuriated

(4) The Americans were feeling that this return to a non-elected authoritarian government in Quebec was a sign of the direction that Britain was going
(5) Americans thought Britain was using Quebec as a base against the Americans (unlikely) but Britain probably sensed a potential revolution form the Americans so they decided to keep the French there and on their side, just in case

Answer 140

A

they would have the support of the Canadian colonies (Nova Scotia and Quebec)

Answer 141

A

In Quebec, American propagandists tried to stir up support for rebellion and a desire for liberty
The French merchants feared the American democratic ideologies and persuaded the habitants not to side with the Americans

1775: The American Continental Congress gets together (all 13 colonies) and decide how to pursue rebellion
The American forces decide that any colony which does not join the Americans is open to being ambushed
The Americans decide that Canada is up for grabs

Answer 142

A

Carleton, the British governor felt he had done everything he could to make the French Canadians happy and assumed their loyalty
He built up a French army, but French Canadians had no interest or desire which upset Carleton
The French did not forget the horrors (looting, burning) of the Seven Years War and Wolff
French are not ready to fight for the British quite yet

French Canadians wished to be neutral, and this lessened Carleton’s opinions on them, and he gained better opinions of the British merchants who openly support Britain against the Americans (in fear of losing the fur trade to the Americans, especially)

Answer 143

A

Gets together (all 13 colonies) and decide how to pursue rebellion

The American forces decide that any colony which does not join the Americans is open to being ambushed
The Americans decide that Canada is up for grabs

Answer 144

A

American General

“I will eat Christmas dinner in Quebec City or in hell”

Montgomery heads north with men, takes Montreal, heads to Quebec City

Answer 145

A

American General

Takes his men through the wilderness of mainland and also heads for Quebec City.

These men are starving and poorly equipped (example: Arnold loses almost half of men).

Answer 146

A

On New Year’s Eve, 1775, during a blinding snowstorm, the Americans try to conquer Quebec City but are easily defeated by British forces
(Montgomery died in the battle)

Americans are unable to take Quebec that winter, but they did occupy over 50 parishes around Quebec

British government is outraged that these American colonies were fighting for own independence AND trying to take other British colonies
British ordered a large fleet to Quebec City
Americans were dismayed to see this sailing up St. Lawrence and headed back home
British did not chase them
They had just sailed across the Atlantic and were poorly fed, and then when they arrive in Quebec they are fed really well (with lots of vegetables) and there is a bad outbreak of dire diarrhea …and the British did not affect the Americans from Canada

Answer 147

A

(1) The Economy: British soldiers had to be fed, grain prices went up
(2) Unified Quebec: strengthened the feelings of the Canadians toward the British

…On the other hand, the Revolution had shown the British that they could not be assured the active support of French Canadians

Answer 148

A

One might assume that the idea of the American Revolution would be attractive to Nova Scotians…

The majority of the population at this time was recently arrived Americans who were very unhappy with the corrupt and distant colonial government in Halifax
The minority of the population was Acadians who have returned to NS
But Nova Scotia was actually neutral during the American Revolution, just as the French Canadians in Quebec were

Answer 149

A

(1) These Americans in NS were not as American as the Americans living in American colonies; they had drifted to NS a decade earlier and missed some of the biggest grievances the American colonies had with Great Britain, therefore, were not nearly as much filled with hatred toward British
(2) The Acadians did not see much value in siding with the Americans; it is one English-speaking group versus another English-speaking group
(3) In NS, there was increasing antagonism against New England. As soon as the Revolution began, New England used that as an excuse to raid and attack Nova Scotia and take anything they could get away with. NS is upset and begins to attack New England in smaller ways.

Answer 150

A

Britain decides that one of the reasons the Americans revolted in the first place was because Britain began taxing their colonies for small taxes that would not go back into American colonies, but went elsewhere in the world

British colony made this act which said that anytime we tax a colony for money, the money must be used in that colony

Britain practices this Act beyond the Revolution, which affects Canada

American Independence from Great Britain is achieved (Britain has been so fed up with anti-colonies by this point, they thought about giving up Quebec and Nova Scotia to the Americans, but did not)

Answer 151

A

Britain ceded all area West of the Great Lakes and South of the Mississippi (gave it to the Americans)

The rest is still Spanish

Britain would keep Quebec, Nova Scotia, Rupert’s Land

It made zero mention of First Nations people (although it was their land being talked about)

Britain has successfully taken these French colonies, and loses their American colonies having done so, and does not even know what to do with the Canadian colonies

Answer 152

A

For Canada, the most important result of the revolution was the coming of the Loyalists

About 50 American military units that fought for British
Loyalists were persecuted by Americans for siding with the British
They had property confiscated, jailed, tarred and feathered, made to pay double and triple the taxes, etc.
In some places where the majority of the population consisted of loyalists, American supporters were shunned
About 20% of white American colonists became loyalists
Highest percentage was in New York, but they existed all over 13 American colonies

About 50 000 of them came to Canada
More than half of the 50 000 were born into American colonies
3000 were black (either free or slaves)
2000 were Aboriginal

Answer 153

A

Americans who fought on the British side during the American Revolution, or sided with the British, or were believed to side with the British, or at the end, decided to stay with the British instead of the Americans after the Revolution

About 50 000 of them came to Canada

More than half of the 50 000 were born into American colonies
3000 were black (either free or slaves)
2000 were Aboriginal

Answer 154

A

Quebec

2. Maritimes (mainly NS, PEI, some NB)

Answer 155

A

Many of the first Loyalists in Quebec were First Nations lead by Joseph Brant

About 10 000 white American colonists arrived in Quebec too

Answer 156

A

Among the first loyalists arrivals in Quebec were Aboriginals (Mohawk and Seneca from the Ohio Valley area)
Lead by Joseph Brant
Brant lead them in fights for the British
Despite supporting the British, there is no mention of Aboriginals in the Treaty of Paris
Therefore, they did not acknowledge it
The war was over between the British and Americans, but First Nations groups did not even acknowledge yet that the war was over
Americans had no interest of accepting Aboriginal claim to territory
Brant convinced the governor of Quebec at the time to give the FNs the Grand River Land for compensation (this is land given to Quebec by the Mississauga)
They were given a very small strip of land
Brant and the group of Mohawks were the first to arrive in terms of the loyalists, but they were not alone

Answer 157

A

About 10 000 white American colonists arrived in Quebec too…

Governor was not sure what to do with them, though he was happy to welcome English-speaking British to the colony
He had them settle in the Western part of the colony where there were few French, so that they would not have conflict with them

Answer 158

A

The arrival of these white American loyalists changed the face of the 4 colonies: they were English speaking, conservative, pro-British and anti-American → they can be seen as the backbone of Canada’s independence

The infusion of this number of English-speaking Protestant British subjects changed the dynamics
When they began to settle in Canada, they pressed for their rights
Began demanding British system of property, law and an elected assembly

Answer 159

A

American Loyalists had a British supporter: Carleton
Carleton only received French neutrality in return for the rights Carleton got for them
Carleton was responsible for moving the loyalists, and became much friendlier to English speaking settlers
He second guessed himself, maybe Quebec will not remain a French speaking colony afterall

Answer 160

A

Nova Scotia was the most popular settlement for the loyalists (especially New Englanders)

34 000 loyalists came to Nova Scotia

About half of them go to mainland, and the other half go to New Brunswick

Answer 161

A

About 17 000 loyalists go to New Brunswick because NS was crowded

Answer 162

A

NB loyalists petition to London to start their own colony because they are too far from Halifax

Britain agrees to it

1784: New Brunswick; Britain creates a separate colony called “New Brunswick”

Answer 163

A

NB loyalists petition to London to start their own colony because they are too far from Halifax

Britain agrees to it

1784: New Brunswick; Britain creates a separate colony called “New Brunswick”

Answer 164

A

Immediate problems arise after founding of NB…

(1) Not as much available land that has been promised to them and very little infrastructure
(2) They were not experienced farmers but it is supposed to be a farm colony

So loyalists decide to move on from NS and NB from what they call “Nova Scarcity”

Loyalists went to 
Quebec
England
Some went back to America (weird)
Sierra Leone?

Example: in 1784, 10 000 people arrive in Shelbourne, and within 30 years, it goes down to 600

There was a black loyalist population (approx. 1000) in Shelbourne that left for Sierra Leone, Africa

Answer 165

A

Nova Scotia grew because of Loyalists and New Brunswick came to be because of Loyalists, but their growth was gradual from then on

The population dynamics of BNA are different now

Britain must reimagine these colonies

Answer 166

A

1791: The British Parliament debates the Canada Bill

This is the first time the British actually calls it Canada
They come up with what is known officially as the Constitutional Act
It is the most discussion about Canada that ever takes place in British Parliament
In Europe, at this time, the French Revolution has just happened and the American Revolution just occurred so Britain is trying to determine how they will keep the Canadians happy and avoid democracy and mob rule

Divides colonies into Upper and Lower Canada

Answer 167

A

Constitutional Act locks Quebec into two different colonies: Upper Canada and Lower Canada
(to reduce tensions)
It appears that there are two different colonies developing:
(1) Upper Canada: English majority
(2) Lower Canada: French majority

Both get their own legislative assembly

Upper Canada will be like any other British colony (no seigneurial system, free land that anyone could buy)

Lower Canada would remain a distinct society (it keeps the BNA)

This is basically the culmination of British trying to figure out what to do after the Conquest

Answer 168

A

The loyalists who come to Quebec are shoved to the Western part of the colony (what becomes Upper Canada)

They did not immediately displace the FNs living there, but they did in the long run by taking over the land

7500 loyalists come to upper canada

After the war, many who initially went to Nova Scotia came to Upper Canada

About 30 000 white settlers in upper Canada

Regular settlers received 160 acres of land, as long as they cleared it, maintained it and built a road in front of it

Clear land became an obsession to these people
Example: Diaries of Elizabeth Simcoe (wife of John Graves Simcoe) that describe the early life in Upper Canada…settlers are moving in, want to farm, but trees are in the way so they burn them down as quickly as they can to ready it for settlement

Answer 169

A

1791-1796: John Graves Simcoe, 1st Lieutenant. Governor

Answer 170

A

Success as a British officer during American Revolution
Instituted many changes

Names
Land Policy
Anglican Church
1793: Simcoe Abolishes Slavery

Answer 171

A

Renamed many things in Ontario after Great Britain

In Quebec city in 1791, he decided he wanted the capital of Upper Canada to be in the heart of the country

He chose the capital by looking at a map: London

He renamed it London, renamed the river the Thames

Then he arrived in London, and decided it was not nice enough to be the capital so he ended up moving the capital to what the FNs call Toronto, and renames it York (it had better harbour)

Ordered the construction of a military road all the way from York to London called Dundas Street

Answer 172

A

His most important work
Simcoe was fiercely pro-British (which meant being anti-American)

He assumed Americans had temporary insanity, so tried to win them back by offering them free land

Many came, they were known as Late Loyalists
Late Loyalists (“Plain Folks”)

Simcoe was imagining that Upper Canada would be an elite British colony, though many of the Late Loyalists did not buy into that but were happy to take the free land

Answer 173

A

Simcoe made the Anglican Church the Church of Upper Canada

Only Anglicans could get married

The most elite were Anglicans, they feared Americans and democracy and feared Catholics because they were French and therefore dangerously foreign

Answer 174

A

In 1793, Simcoe makes Upper Canada the first place in the world to abolish slavery

Protect black loyalists, protect and honour a promise made to blacks in the British army

Slavery was never very feasible in BNA because there were not the same monocultures as in South America which required large groups to do dirty work
Population had jumped to 75 000

Answer 175

A

Americans who moved to Upper Canada in the 1790s, long after the Revolution

Some of them were from sects, such as plain folks, amish, mennonites, etc. to be free from religious persecution by living on large pieces of land together
Many were Americans heading West and stayed in Upper Canada for a while on the way

Late loyalists outnumbering the real loyalists 4:1

Answer 176

A

1789: the beginning of the French Revolution

(French Revolution is the overthrowing of the monarchy in France, and establishing a Republican under Napoleon)

Britain goes to war with France from 1793-1815, Napoleonic Wars

Note: Britain feared that these radical French ideas of democracy and pulling down the elites/monarchy would arise in Lower Canada, as well)

This caused some major changes in BNA…

Answer 177

A

France blockades Great Britain from trading with almost all countries

Britain was kind of sick of their colonies (Americans had just revolted) but during the Napoleonic Wars, they needed their colonies more than ever since Napoleon blocked GB from trading

BNA was of much greater interest to Britain

This was very important for Canada, and Canadian economic and population growth

Answer 178

A

Since Britain is at war with France, it did not deal well with the US…

British treatment of American Shipping / Sailors
British-American disputes in the Ohio country
Tecumseh’s Confederacy
American “war hawks”

Answer 179

A

British prevented American ships from entering French waters
Searched American ships for British deserters from the war
Ignored American citizenship papers and forced 1000s of Americans into service for British navy
Even though America was a different country, Britain is still involving them in the war
Americans begin talking about war, using the slogan “Free Trade and Sailors Rights”
Americans did not like how the British were treating them since the Revolution, and especially now

Answer 180

A

Poor writing in Treaty of Paris lead to disputes
First Nations are doing trade in American territory - Upper Canada is profiting off American land so Americans are irritated

Answer 181

A

Tecumseh: a First Nations warrior
Takes up idea of Aboriginal Independence
Begins raiding Americans in Ohio territory
Tecumseh’s War, 1811
Americans wrongly blame British for encouraging Tecumseh to perform these raids

Answer 182

A

Americans thought that America was so great and full of such great ideas, that all of North America should be an American nation
Upper Canada looked especially good for this because it was populated by Americans
War Hawks
James Madison declared war on Great Britain

Answer 183

A

Americans began the War of 1812 very confident and optimistic…

Canada looked easy, on paper (outnumbered 10:1 by Americans)
Americans were optimistic that the Canadians might even join the Americans, specifically in Upper and Lower Canada
The British army was busy fighting Napoleon in France

Thomas Jefferson: conquering Canada will be “a mere matter of marching”

              *****

But, the Americans were overconfident - the US harboured some weaknesses in the war…

(1) Support for the war was mainly in the West (where there were not many people, and in the South, where they were too far away to be involved)
Most of the other US states were not that into the war (New England, New York)

(2) Americans were not well-lead at this point
(Example: General Haul, who marched into Canada in the late fall without winter coats, and his men froze and they had to retreat)
Haul says anyone who does not side with him will be killed, poor leader

Answer 184

A

commander of British forces in Upper Canada

Answer 185

A

British forces were well-lead by Isaac Brock

Brock tried to build good relations with First Nations
Americans faced a shock when they tried to take Canada in the War of 1812 (specifically in 1812)
Upper Canada is the only place that really sees the war from 1812-1814
Lower Canada
Maritimes were uninterested in the war and sat it out
Americans invading Upper Canada in 1812 suffer a shock
British take Fort Michilimackinac
Brock chased Haul’s men all the way back to detroit, where Haul’s men surrendered

Answer 186

A

Americans sail up the river, and meet Brock and his men at Queenston Heights

Brock was killed in this Battle

Two American Generals complain about each other in American newspaper, and call each other to a duel

In the duel, they both shoot each other and both miss

1812 had been a good year for the British

1813-1814 was not so successful for the British…

Answer 187

A

British and American forces engaged in a Naval arms race (both sides are building bigger and bigger ships and guns then shooting each other to sink them)

Americans burned down York (Toronto) and Niagara

Americans planned another attack on British troops and Laura Secord heard of it and told the British about it, British - with the help of the Mohawk - staved them off before the Americans could act

The War ended when Napoleon (French dictator) gave up

France wrapped up the war and Britain can afford to send reinforcements from Europe to focus more on the war in North America

British sent troops, burned down Buffalo and Washington (the President’s House, the Capitol Building, the White House)

British brought in 15, 000 soldiers to protect Canada

Now there are as many British soldiers fighting as there are American soldiers

Implicit threat that the British could brings thousands and thousands more soldiers

The Americans felt threatened by that, but there was no appetite for more war on Britain’s part and they were happy to finish up war of 1812

Answer 188

A

Treaty of Ghent (1814, Christmas Day)

(1) Returned things to what they had been before the war
- Borders stayed the same
- Did not try to solve all the problems that had caused the war

(2) Peace Between US and Britain (Canada)
- Shortly after this treaty, Britain and the US agreed on a non-aggression pact: we will no longer have military fleets/battleships in the Great Lakes

(3) Strengthens Canada
- They agree in writing on the border West of the great Lakes
- 49th parallel divided longitude west of the Great Lakes all the way to the rocky mountains

Answer 189

A

In a sense, the war lead the US and Canada to create a huge, long, undefended border
So it can be said that the war of 1812 lead to the start of peaceful relations between these two countries
Canada was not so enthusiastic about getting American immigrants
BNA stopped trying to get British Americans, which meant they would have to get immigrants and settlers from somewhere else
Peace between US and Britain (Canada) strengthens Canada
The war strengthened Upper Canada and Lower Canada
Upper Canada: the people had united, defended against the attack, not much damage so it did not take them long to rebuild
Lower Canada: not a sense, at all, that the French Canadians might side with the Americans, there was a recognition in LC, that if they did side with Americans they would be a major minority and lose their rights
Strengthened both UC and LC in their positions under the British Crown

Answer 190

A

War opened up to a variety of interpretations of who won the war.

One thing we know for sure is that it was not the First Nations…

Moravian Town: Tecumseh, who lead the War of 1812, died there and his confederacy collapsed. That was the end of political and military forces for FNs, at this kind of international level.

Answer 191

A

Tecumseh, who lead the War of 1812, died there and his confederacy collapsed.

That was the end of political and military forces for FNs, at this kind of international level.

Answer 192

A

Very little presence in Rupert’s Land
Instead, they built forts along Hudson bay and James Bay and waited for middlemen to come to them
They did not go into the continent, they stayed on the shores and expected fur traders to come to them
Each post was commanded by a chief trader

Answer 193

A

Most trade for the HBC came from York Factory…

From the Hudson’s Bay Company’s point of view, it was very advantageous to stay at forts along the water

They were close to forest and animals
Could sail back to England at any time if there was conflict
Did not have to spend any money on building a colony or employing a lot of traders to go inland

The HBC started to doubt this practice of sitting and waiting for the fur trade to come to them, thought they could be more proactive…

They were called “asleep by the frozen sea” because they could be making more money off the fur trade if they were more active

Increasing pressure for HBC to begin engaging and expanding fur trade into interior (and expanding Britain’s claim of land in doing so)

Answer 194

A

The Hudson’s Bay Company sat on the edge of HB and JB for a century which worked for them well, because they were without competition in the West for generations

This begins to change when French traders start moving west…

Answer 195

A

Eventually the HBC begin moving inland…

Henley House is the first Inland house built by the HBC (1743)

Anthony Henday explored/moved to the rocky mountains and met the Cree there

Answer 196

A

In 1783, the Montreal traders working as individuals bonded together and built the Northwest Company

The result was much more competition for fur

Even the HBC is shaken enough that it had to begin expanding

Example:

1774: 17 fur trade forts
1804: 430 fur trade forts

What this meant was a far greater expansion of European impact throughout the West in this period

This was still very much Aboriginal land, most of it has negligible European presence

Huge increase in exploration of the West: the underarching reason for this interest in exploration is trade (money, commerce)

Answer 197

A

First European explorer to explore Arctic

1771: sets of with a band of Chippewa

Travelled through Northern Tundra
Traces from Coppermine river to the Arctic
Before he did his travels, nobody really understood how far West to East this country was
He had never met anyone that ever saw the Pacific ocean
By heading North up the river, he showed that it was extremely difficult to explore and travel through Canada

Answer 198

A

First person of European descent to cross the continent North of Mexico

1792: Travelled along the Peace River, through the rockies and Fraser river, to central BC

His FNs guides warned him to avoid Fraser river so he continued on foot through their trade routes through the forest instead

That summer, he reached the Pacific ocean

He knew that his discovery was going to make people rich, and maybe even him

Once England takes control of everything, they will have everything: fishing in both seas, fur trade can be taken to China

Inspired Thomas Jefferson to do the same thing a few years later in the South

Answer 199

A

In this period of the late 1700s into the early 1800s, there are surveyors who are filling in the map for the HBC (example: Peter Fedler, who travelled 48 000 miles on foot)

Thompson was apprenticed with the NW Company at age 14 and travelled about 56 000 miles mapping more than North America than anyone

When he retired to Montreal he was assigned the job of stitching all of his surveying maps together to create one big 2m x 3m map

Answer 200

A

No clear date of when the Europeans first made contact with West Coast Aboriginal people

Maybe it was Juan De Fuca in the 1590s, Spanish ignored his expenditures

Answer 201

A

Vitus Bering, 1730s, Danish man working for Russians travelling from Siberia and travels down Alaska

Gets Russians and other Europeans interested in West Coast for sea otter pelts

Lead to an international fur rush for the sea otter, and as a result, SPanish begin being interested in the West Coast again (2 centuries too late)

Answer 202

A

Juan Perez, Spanish explorer in 1770s claimed Queens Islands, this is the first recorded contact between Europeans and FNs

Just as it is in the east Coast, the FNs come out in their boats with their furs and engage with him to trade

Suggests that this was not the first contact, FNs were familiar with trade

Answer 203

A

James Cook, in the 1770s, an already famous British explorer stopped off in BC and traded for sea otter pelts and then took them to Macau in Asia and got a lot of money from them

Traders in Macau were willing to pay a lot more for them which lead to a massive influx of trade, to the point that the sea otters almost went extinct

Spain and Britain began arguing over who had the right to present-day BC

And ended up agreeing to a joint occupation, but Spain’s Empire was declining in this period, so by the time they agreed to this, Spain basically gave up on the trade

Answer 204

A

To cement their claim, British sent George Vancouver to chart the coastline from Oregon to Alaska

He finds that the Strait of Juan De Fuca leads to an Island

1793: Vancouver lays anchor in Bella Coola and misses Alexander MacKenzie walking across Bella Coola a couple weeks earlier

Answer 205

A

Prior to the 1780s, First Nations controlled the interior of Canada
They trapped, they took their furs to to distant forts, they were in a strong position of trading for goods
Very few Europeans invaded on this First Nations territory from the GLs onward
In the 1780s, it begins to decline

Foundation of the NWC in 1783 meant expansion into First Nations territory

HBC feels they have the right to all of this territory (Rupert’s Land)
Territorial monopoly, rather than a fur trade monopoly (e.g. if someone wanted to sell a beaver fur on that land, HBC controlled that)

NWC ignored the HBC “authority” over the land

With both companies moving into the interior, it became an “arm’s race” of boats (Lake Canoes and York Boats)

Answer 206

A

NWC built larger and larger canoes that could hold 3 tonnes of fur

Answer 207

A

HBC, retaliating NWC’s Lake Canoes , built York boats

York boats were even larger, 40 feet long, and carried 6 tonnes of freight
Safer on lakes and in storms, wouldn’t tip, but it was too big to carry

Answer 208

A

NWC decided that they would expand into interior

(1) Voyageurs
NWC tended to rely on second, third and fourth generation voyageurs, even though it was newer

(2) Relations w FNs
NWC tended to have better relations and worked harder at having good relations with First Nations

(3) Proft-Sharing
NWC had employees who were profit-sharing; the more furs they brought, the more money they made, and they received more of it (whereas the HBC was salary-based)

Answer 209

A

HBC had one overarching advantage over the NWC: the Hudson’s Bay (they were closer to the interior)

NWC: in Montreal, had to travel great distances to trade in NorthWest, which cut their profits and made it a lot more difficult to feed people, who were travelling such long distances every day

Answer 210

A

Prior to this competition, when fur trade was beginning in the NorthWest, the effects on the FNs were pretty narrow and affected only those close to the forts
Cree were close to forts, they became fur traders

For those more distant from forts, life was pretty much unaffected

When trade started to expand, effects were pretty limited and FNs found themselves capable of choosing if they were going to involve themselves with Europeans

Example: Blackfoot (positive story)

However, eventually for other First Nations groups of the NorthWest, change became quicker, harder and more traumatic

Answer 211

A

A Plains group of First Nations centred around the Buffalo who become engaged in fur trade with the HBC

Horses came with the Spanish to Central America in the 1500s, they went wild and headed north over generations and made it up to the prairies before Europeans arrive

Blackfoot loved this, because the horse was great for catching Buffalo

What they do not realise is that it was a European technology

Initially then, the Blackfoot refused the fur trade, but then eventually began trading with HBC (wolf, buffalo, etc.)

Pemmican: they also began feeding the HBC, supplying the fur traders with dried buffalo meat

Encouraged Plains groups, like Blackfoot, to engage in trade with these fur traders

Blackfoot are even a positive story, they got into trade with Europeans slowly and gradually, made their own decisions about what they wanted to do, profited off of it, and used all the other parts of the Buffalo

Blackfoot began not engaged in fur trade and moved into a commercial relationship with Europeans

Answer 212

A

dried buffalo meat

Pemmican became a staple for the fur trade: it was easily-portable energy that could be compressed into small amounts of food

While canoeing, voyageurs would eat a kilogram of Buffalo a day (8 quarter pounders, but had the caloric intake of 32 quarter pounders)

Pemmican was not tasty, but became a commodity

HBC begins buying Pemmican (way more than they need) from the First Nations just to make sure that NWC is not getting it

Answer 213

A

Disease/Depopulation
Dislocation
Depletion of Wildlife
Dependency

Answer 214

A

As soon as these traders move into the NorthWest, they bring disease with them

1780s: major smallpox epidemic across the West (3 quarters of Ojibwe across Western superior, 3 quarters of the Woodland Cree)
- We do not know everything about this disease
- But we know that a lot of First Nations died
- It could have actually spread up from Mexico
It encouraged the spread of the HBC and NWC into the West
- Not sure if the smallpox brought the fur traders, or the fur traders brought the smallpox
- Wherever Europeans are coming, disease is coming too

Early 1800s: the FN population in Canada troughs (maybe 175 000 FNs across Canada at this time)

Answer 215

A

Heightened warfare

DISEASE
- In part because of disrupted population because of things like disease: FNs societies are moving around, bumping into each other and going to war with each other
(1) Assiniboine: Red River Valley area of Manitoba move deeper into Plains to kill more Buffalo
(2) Cootinae: Alberta side of rocky mountains, First Nations get pushed to the other side of the rockies towards BC by the Blackfoot
GUNS
- There is a differential on guns
- Some groups have traded and gotten guns, while others haven’t, which made warfare more common and more deadly in this area

Answer 216

A

Such an active fur trade, and so much competition made for a whole lot of extinction of fur-bearing animals in this location
Occasionally, this was done on purpose: groups would take as much as they could and kill the other animals they could not carry so the other groups could not get them

Answer 217

A

Combining all these things, increasingly in this era, the peoples of the West had no choice but to engage in trade and they get sucked into trade and a European way of life

Example: Ojibway of NW Ontario were great in 1790s but by early 1800s, they are more dependent on Europeans when they begin running out of Beaver to trade for and cannot feed themselves anymore, so Ojibway had no choice but to keep on trading and moving further to find animals

Trade for alcohol and tobacco weakend First Nations society by increasing the accessibility of these goods

Answer 218

A

Male Europeans and Female Aboriginals
Men were French voyageurs and English traders
40% of French Canadians today have at least one First Nations ancestor today
These marriages were alliances, that were key for cementing even greater alliances
Increasingly the people of mixed descent began marrying more mixed decent people and did not think of themselves as First Nations or French

Answer 219

A

French + First Nations Mix

1000 metis women and children living at NWC forts

They spoke a dialect: mix between French and Cree (Michif dialect)

Answer 220

A

Scottish/British + First Nations Mix

Some Scottish and First Nations married

Lived in Manitoba and spoke a dialect: mix between Cree, Ojibway, Gaelic and English

(Bungi dialect)

Answer 221

A

Mixed-descent began self-defining as distinct, and the companies they worked for began distinguishing them too

Fully-Aboriginal people and partially-aboriginal people
Gave preference to partially-aboriginal people

This further split and povertized the Aboriginal society

Answer 222

A

The stabilizing of the fur trade can be seen in the period of the 1810s

The Scottish begin realizing they can make more money with sheep than people and began throwing peasants off the land and replacing them with sheep

Thomas Douglas wanted to help peasants so he helped them settle in North America

Lord Selkirk Grant: Lord Selkirk was a major investor in the HBC, wanting to profit, he asks HBC for a land grant, and said he would populate it

Received a land grant 5x the size of Scotland itself (Red River, Manitoba)

1812: Selkirk dropped about 100 Scottish settlers there, with very few supplies, no food, barely survived winter (only thanks to generosity of NWC and Metis, or else they all would have starved to death)

Answer 223

A

Lord Selkirk was a Scottish major investor in the HBC

Wanting to profit, he asks HBC for a land grant, and said he would populate it

Answer 224

A

Lord Selkirk Grant was a major investor in the HBC. Wanting to profit, he asks HBC for a land grant, and said he would populate it. He received a land grant 5x the size of Scotland itself (Red River, Manitoba).

1812: Selkirk dropped about 100 Scottish settlers there, with very few supplies, no food, barely survived winter (only thanks to generosity of NWC and Metis, or else they all would have starved to death)

Metis let them live, but were irritated because it was a control in the land they were living in, and interfere in the trade routes and was at the heart of the Buffalo trading
They thought the HBC was messing with them
NWC took things into their own hands
At first, they paid settlers to leave … those who wouldn’t leave would have their colonies burned down
Selkirk sent more settlers

This lead to the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816.

Answer 225

A

It was a battle between the Selkirk settlers, NWC and Metis in Red River, Manitoba.

The Metis who had been supplying NWC with pemmican confronted Scottish settlers and killed 21 of them including the new governor
From a European perspective, this was trouble. - Violence and resulting lawsuits from the violence soon revealed the realization that this competition could no longer continue and Selkirk stopped sending settlers there. (Additionally, beaver population in West was drying up.)

Answer 226

A

HBC and NWC merge

Answer 227

A

This era of competition and wild west existence is over
Owners get an equal number of shares
It is clear that the HBC is the real winner
Its name, headquarters in London remain and trade remains out of HB instead of Montreal
Traders of NWC are bought out and turn to timber, etc.
Trade is firmly in the hands of the HBC from the Great Lakes to the Pacific Ocean for the next half century

In States, its people first, then law
In Canadian West, its law first, then people
People in Canada arrive to already established law and authority

Answer 228

A

Head of HBC (1821-1860)

He ran HBC as a business with an iron fist
First thing he does is close half of the fur trade posts, which cuts employment by two thirds
The people who suffer the most are the First Nations and Metis people

Answer 229

A

Immigration to BNA from Great Britain during this period

Roughly 36 000 British Immigrants

1816: 6000
1832: 66 000
1847: 110, 000

In total, just short of one million immigrants come from Great Britain to British North America

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Pre-Confederation

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