Midterm Exam Flashcards
First people in America
~15,000 years ago; most plausible theory is that they travelled across land bridge from Russia following big game
Clovis Period
~13,000 years ago
-Named for the Clovis point (a large, obsidian attached to a spear called an Atatl; best used to hunt megafauna.
Clovis points were found all over the country, suggesting:
1) Migration
2) Ongoing tradition/knowledge transfer
Folsom Period
~10,000 years ago
- Named for the Folsom Points—smaller, rounded, made from variety of materials.
- Hunting smaller game due to dying off megafauna (ice age is ending)
- Variety of styles suggests:
1) Less mobility
2) Special knowledge of local game
Early Farming
~ 5000 years ago—appeared across the world at similar times
Pros: staying in one place, less land to support population, more consistent food source.
Cons: need to provide defense, intensive labor, soil degradation, not as nutritious
Pit Houses
~2200 years ago (200 BCE)
- More permanent dwellings with evidence of long-term food storage (ceramics)
- Square or rectangle holes dug in ground with wooden posts and hole in roof
Ceramics
200 – 500 CE
–Provided food storage and increased ability to cook certain foods
–Suggests diet changes + more sedentary lifestyles
Early Cultural Groups
Cultural groups were defined by ceramics and architecture; they included:
–Mogollon (700 – 1130 CE)
–Hohoham (1–1450 CE)
–Patayan (700–1500 CE)
Ancestral Peubloans (Anazasi)
–4-corners region; more mountainous
–Large architecture on side of cliffs; largest town was Pueblo Bonito
–Elaborate trade network
Environmental degradation led to demise. (Deforestation + erosion created micro-drought)
Modern Pueblos
Many different groups who spoke different languages clumped together under one name (by Spaniards)
Europe in Middle Ages
–Combined supernatural thought and religion
–Small villages; family units enforced
–Monarchy systems; Catholic main religion
–Knew of Asia
–Plague kills 1/3 of population in Europe
Portugal
–Took interest in naval technology from Asia
–Became center of trade due to naval activity
–Also develops pattern of colonization
–Creates slave trade with African labor; religiously motivated (workers refused Christianity, therefore it was okay to enslave them)
^ Would set up pattern of economic expansion for other European kingdoms
Religion on Iberian Pennisula
711 CE – Muslims take control; continues to be ongoing violent struggle between religions
–Christians seek to reclaim kingdom-by-kingdom
Conversos and Morisos
Jewish people and Muslim people (respectively) who converted to Christianity due to social pressures and violences; viewed as secretly still practicing old religions
–Creates new social distinctions: “new Christians” (with less pure blood) and “old Christians” (whose family has always been Christian).
–First
Reconquista
1400s
–Led by Isabella of Castile, who married Ferdinand of Aragon (to gain access to Mediterranean trade through his kingdom, consolidate power)
–Still trying to rid peninsula of other religions; invokes “merced capitulacion,” a program that gives land and laborers to soldiers who conquer areas
–Later bans Muslim and Jewish people
Christopher Columbus
–Wants to find Asia from the west – 1492
–Incorrect calculations lead him to Bahamas, Cuba, Dominican Republic and Haiti
White Legend vs. Black Legend
White Legend: imperialism was merciful, benevolent work; conversions improved lives; there were “standards” including a statement read to natives about religion and monarchy—only their refusal to acknowledge warranted the right to attack
Black Legend: Spain was uniquely evil/cruel in imperialism, especially compared to England
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
–Pope fixes debate between Spain and Portugal of who was able to claim discovery of Americas
–He draws a line across the globe and gives each separate conquest areas (without knowing all continents)
–Spain gets the Americas
Spanish Beliefs about the Americas
–Religious motivation for missionary work in Americas: Second-coming was imminent and non-Christian people in Americas would delay the process (everyone needed to be Christian)
–Brought up debate if natives were human
–Fantastical, non-belief: how could another continent exist?
–Tried to find evidence of Christianity previously existing in the Americas
–Interested in finding gold
Aztec (1427–1521)
–Empire that subjected other communities to providing military, food, labor, and sacrifices to sun god.
–Viewed as cruel overlord by locals.
–Elaborate, populous, technically sophisticated.
–Underestimates Cortez’s allies of locals (who are against the Aztec); combined with widespread disease = downfall; becomes New Spain
New Spain
–Is created by Carlos V after Cortez’s defeat of Aztecs
–Carlos establishes bureaucratic structure with viceroys whose duties include increasing revenue
–New Spain labor policies: soldiers are paid with indigenous labor (in return for conversion); technically “slavery” is not allowed
Limpieza de Sangre
–”blood purity;” Spanish were developing categories of race
–dictated from where you were born:
peninsulare (top) were full Spaniards born in Spain
criollo were Spaniards born in North America
Casta System
Hierarchical system rooted in appearance, religion, and where you were born.
Extensive charts tracking new racial groups created through inter-marriage.
Casta paintings – sent to priests and civil officials to document racial status.
Racial status can trump gender dynamics within families.
System was somewhat easily manipulated (passing for other races).
Florida (~1528)
Narvaez chosen for expedition to explore “island.”
Harsh climate, limited knowledge of geography leads to downfall—only 2 crafts make it back to TX in an attempt to reach Mexico.
Esteban (slave, possibly Muslim) survives and is invited on more expeditions, eventually killed by Zuni.
Troubles in New Mexico (1500s)
After gold in Mexico is gone, Viceroy wants new source of wealth or new empire to take over: sends expeditions to find “new Mexico”
First expeditions fail—false description of Cibola, El Turko leads to fictitious “empire” in Plains.
Search for mineral wealth/empire to conquer is considered a failure.
~ Spanish stays away for 50 years ~
Juan de Onate wants to use NM for human labor (Pueblos); results in Pueblo attack and vicious counter-attack (Acoma massacre) and again abandonment.
Missionary work in New Mexico (1600s)
Religious motivation is new reason to move into New Mexico; Santa Fe is founded in 1610.
Franciscans (religious order; regular priests) are main missionaries in New Spain and most powerful order from middle ages.
Franciscan Friars (1600s)
–Take name from St. Francis
–Death as martyr is ultimate goal
–Devoted to missionary work and living life of poverty
–Particular views of sin: cleansed themselves of bodily pleasures including taste; physical penance/pain/discomfort were preferred.
–Used physical punishment on themselves as well as natives
–3-step plan: occupation, penetration (build larger network), and liaison (perform missionary duties)
Maria de Agreda (1600s)
–Franciscan nun who was thought to have performed bilocation (being two places at once) between Spain and the Americas
–Tells Indians to embrace Christianity
Pueblo Religion (1600s)
–Polytheistic beliefs with gods relating to natural entities
–Gods take the form of kachinas (costumes, dolls – anthropomorphic representations)
Pueblo Responses to Spanish Religion (1600s)
–More accepting of Spanish god’s existence, but not as the only god
–Tolerant of Spanish for trade networks and defense from Apache
–Did not approve of self-punishment of Franciscans
–Resisted baptism; believed it brought on disease
–Individual revolts occurred
Conflicts Between Church and State in New Mexico (1600s)
–Both priests/civil authorities assumed power over the other
–Labor issues: both groups want native labor for themselves
–Locations: Santa Fe (gov capital) and Santa Domingo (religious capital) fought for power
–Friars often won conflicts as they were on career advancement trend whereas civil authorities were on downward trend
Spanish Inquisition in New Mexico
Religious leaders seek to overthrow civil authorities by claiming religious impurity; played out multiple times demonstrating contested authority between the two groups
Luis de Rosa
Arrives in NM in 1637
New structure of increased forced labor (captured Apaches) ruins already shaky trade agreements
Escalates tensions between Pueblos and Apaches; Pueblos seek revenge on Spanish
Also conflicts with church: Catholics must submit to gov authority or else they aren’t real Catholics
Causes of the Great Pueblo Revolt (1620–1690ish)
Causes
–Trade: Spanish disrupted already shaky trade with Apache
–Massive drought put more pressure on groups—some groups disappeared and some merged
–Pueblo Religious Revival: turned back to gods to mitigate drought and rejected Friars even more
Pope’ (mid-late 1600s)
Pueblo military leader who began building networks across Pueblo communities
Had religious visions of gods who stated they would not return (drought would not cease) until Spanish were gone
Created a unified message from gods that hardships were caused by Spanish
Began to organize revolt: the plan was to kill or capture horses, kill Friars, then target military and government.
The Great Pueblo Revolt (1680)
August 10, 1680
Spanish were unprepared; simultaneous attack from many groups of Pueblos
Friars were killed and all churches were destroyed; 400 Spanish died
Spanish retreated to Isleta and Santa Fe where both groups eventually surrender and leave New Mexico
Spanish report back to viceroy that this was the devil’s work, not due to mistreatment of Indians
Aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt (late 1600s)
Pueblos:
News of revolt spreads — inspires other revolts across the north of New Spain.
Pope’ takes leadership but is killed within the year; disintegration of the Pueblo alliance (divide into smaller blocks)
Spanish:
Unwilling to let area go — they do not want the symbol of the revolt to spread, they want indigenous labor, religious motivation, fear of other European colonizers (still little known geography)
Diego de Vargas (late 1600s)
Appointed to retake New Mexico in 1691 in a “reconquista.”
Send expeditions to form alliances with Pueblo that were non-violent and diplomatic.
de Vargas brings priests and colonists back to Santa Fe in 1693—quickly becomes battle.
–de Vargas executes 70 Pueblo causing unending war to reassert authority
Used image of Virgin Mary (“Our Lady of Conquest”)
By 1696, Spanish control almost all Pueblo groups (mainly due to population decline)
French
late 1600s/early 1700s
–Focused mostly on trading — dominated northern fur trade
–Searching for Northwest Passage
–”Peace through purchase” was policy in interactions with natives
–La Salle: explored the area of Louisiana and est. colony at mouth of Mississippi River.
1683 – Spanish view La Salle’s colony as threat, declare war. Little geographic knowledge limits their ability to find La Salle and his colony.
When they do find it, La Salle is dead and the colony is already abandoned.
Difficulty finding La Salle makes Spanish authorities look weak to viceroy.
Comanche (early 1700s)
Bison hunters who moved to plains from the east (pushed out by other groups who were pushed west by English colonists)
Expert hunters on horseback (acquired horses from the Pueblo revolt)
Rivalry with Apache
Dominated trade in the area and with the French (traded guns with French but not with Spanish as this was outlawed)
Became supplier of goods to New Mexico.
Santa Cruz de San Saba
Mission in Texas to convert Apaches
Apaches claim to want conversion, but likely want an ally against Comanche
Comanche view this mission as the establishment of an Apache/Spanish alliance; attack the mission and kill the friars
Abandoned by Spanish—overall failure (even though it was not very violent)
Overall, follows in general trend of Spanish on decline and losing control (which leads to Bourbon Reforms)
Cause of the Bourbon Reforms (1700s)
Carlos III wants change: losing money across empire, lots of corruption
Wants to bring enlightenment thinking to empire
Commissions Rubi to observe operations and report on findings
Rubi suggests that many of the missions should be abandoned; forts are better than missionary work which has been unsuccessful
Bourbon Reforms: The Plan (1700s)
Rational approach: equally spaces presidios with exact building materials/personnel
Moving further south (away from Comanche)
New uniforms/equipment based on role
Jesuits
A religious order named after Jesus
Believed they had a unique mission with a special oath to the Pope
Learned languages and cultures of those they were trying to convert
Responses to Bourbon Reforms (late 1700s)
Very little changed because the rules were impractical and did not accommodate local resources, materials, climates, etc.
New positions: Comandante General and Comandante Inspector
Jose de Galvez (mid/late 1700s)
Part of Bourbon Reforms
Comandante Inspector, came up with plan for defeat of natives:
- Maintain pressure on Apache until extinction
- Build alliances to pit natives against each other
- Make natives dependent on Spain via gifts and trade (including alcohol)
Reversed firearms-trade ban with natives
Leads groups into CA with help from Portola eventually became a little crazy.
Moving to Alta California (late 1700s)
Franciscans move into Alta after taking over Baja, CA from Jesuits (who were banished from New Spain)
Junipero Serra leads missionary (he romanticized previous era of Franciscan dominance including self punishment; out of touch with current Franciscan thought)
Serra and Portola found San Diego in1769.
Portola est. Monterey Bay as capital of Alta, CA, but returns to Mexico City—views CA as waste of money/time.
Life in Alta California
Serra is kind of in charge—makes all missions self-supporting with Indian labor and specific industries/crafts.
Low life expectancy due to limited nutrition and unsanitary conditions
1775 – Toypurnia local community leader who claimed connection with the gods and wanted to evict the Spanish, however her plan was discovered.
Louisiana Purchase (1803)
Napoleon controls France—had aspirations to control North America, but was difficult to manage.
Increasing population is putting stress on US
Jefferson sent diplomat to negotiate trade deal for New Orleans, but Napoleon offers sell all of Louisiana territory
Not clear what this sale includes (Spain and US disagree on border)
Lewis and Clark (early 1800s)
Commissioned to document land and people in Louisiana territory
Surprisingly peaceful/uneventful expedition
Encountered many natives who wanted to trade for guns, which was unexpected.
Meet Sakakawea who became useful because she knew many languages; presence of woman also conveyed “peace” to other tribes
Surprised at european goods found in remote tribes – evidence of extensive trade network
Miguel Hidaglo (early 1800s)
Criollo, previously Jesuit Catholic priest who doubts teachings of the church
Sent away to community of Delores where he raises the standard of living, engages with enlightenment thinking, and begin to plot a revolt
Gives rally cry/call to arms at town center in which he:
Invokes rights of ancestry for natives to join cause
Uses image of Lady of Guadalupe as representation of independence
Plan is discovered and Hidaglo is executed
Mexican Independence
Started with Hidaglo’s plan which is discovered before it could be properly implemented
Morelos (Mestizo) becomes leader of the movement; leads gorilla warfare campaign to great success; takes control of Mexico City.
Goals: independence from Spain, end to slavery/torture, universal male suffrage
Movement loses steam—Criollos don’t support universal male suffrage, shift in power back in Spain—leaves only one area still fighting
Augustin Iturbide betrays Spanish and helps Mexico reach independence.
Augustin Iturbide
Spanish military leader sent in to squash the remaining fighters for Mexican Independence; sees opportunity for personal advancement and betrays the Spanish
Becomes Emperor of newly independent Mexico (Constitutional Monarchy)
Plan de Iguala
Mexico’s initial declaration of Independence, but took a very different tone than U.S.—instead praised Spain and stated:
–Mexico would be constitutional monarchy with elected gov.
–Catholicism is the only religion
–Mexican gov. will not use racial categories (end of caste system)
1821 – Spain concedes that Mexico is an independent constitutional monarchy
1824 Mexican Constitution
Large debt to start; mismanagement by Augustin leads to revolt for a “Republic of Mexico” and Augustin is forced out.
Santa Anna becomes new leader
New constitution more emulated US.
Same structure as US
No freedom of religion
Large authority to president during emergency
Secularization of CA Missions (early-mid 1800s)
The liberal party in the new Mexican Republic wanted to limit the power of the church.
Missions were taken away from Franciscans and intended to be distributed among natives, but elite groups grabbed the land.
Santa Anna
Led revolt against Augustin for a new “Republic of Mexico”
Becomes new leader—later drafts new constitution that removes local autonomy and replaces it with appointed military leaders
Instability leads to rebellion in Texas; Santa Anna leads military campaign to the Alamo where the rebels are defeated (gives Santa Anna false confidence)
Santa Anna’s harsh treatment of the battle of the Alamo inspires more to join the Texas cause
Eventually captured; negotiates treaties for his release and TX independence, but these were not approved by Mexican gov.
Santa Fe Trail
1821 – all trade barriers with U.S. are lifted, opening trade routes into eastern Texas with large profit margins
Settling Texas Territory (mid 1800s)
Mexico felt threatened by U.S. claiming Texas after Louisiana Purchase.
To settle Texas, U.S. citizens were allowed to move into Texas if they:
–renounce U.S. citizenship
–be catholic or convert to catholicism
–integrate into existing Mexican communities in TX
Program got way out of hand—thousands of Euro-americans were moving in and outnumbering the mexican citizens there
Euro-Americans mostly came from the south and brought slaves with them to work on large plantations
Mexican congress eventually outlawed US migration into Texas and established military presence
Manifest Destiny
Became popular during Polk’s presidential campaign in US—God-given right for US to control North America
Led to Texas statehood
Texas Revolution (mid 1800s)
–Mexico created tension by taxing trade with U.S. to support their programs of bringing mexican citizens into TX territory
–and by eliminated slavery of African-Americans (specifically targeted Euro-American residents)
TWO PARTIES:
Peace Party: wanted to become a state of Mexico to give more local autonomy
War Party: break from Mexico and join US as a state
War party gains popularity as tensions rise between Mexico and Texas territory
Battle at the Alamo – Texas rebels are defeated by Mexican military led by Santa Anna, who took no prisoners
Retribution for Santa Anna’s cruelty motivated more Texans to join cause; eventually made treaty with Santa Anna despite it not recognized by Mexican gov.
Applied for statehood but was rejected due to debates on slavery
U.S. recognized Texas as independent until it became a state in 1845.
