Midterm Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Tendency to attribute people’s achievements and failures to their
personal qualities
A
Individualistic Explanation
2
Q
Way of examining human life that focuses on the broad social forces and structural
features of society that exist above the level of individual people
A
Macro Level
3
Q
Way of examining human life that focuses on the immediate, everyday experiences
of individuals
A
Micro Level
4
Q
Sociological Imagination
A
Ability to see the impact of social forces on our private lives
5
Q
The systematic study of human societies
A
Sociology
6
Q
Social position acquired through our own efforts or accomplishments or taken
on voluntarily
A
Achieved Status
7
Q
Social position acquired at birth or taken on involuntarily later in life
A
Ascribed Status
8
Q
Theoretical perspective that views the structure of society as a source of
inequality that always benefits some groups at the expense of other groups
A
Conflict perspective
9
Q
Language, values, beliefs, rules, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a society
A
Culture
10
Q
Theoretical perspective that focuses on gender as the most important
source of conflict and inequality in social life
A
Feminist perspective
11
Q
: Process through which people’s lives all around the world become economically,
politically, environmentally, and culturally interconnected
A
Globalization
12
Q
Set of people who interact more or less regularly and who are conscious of their identity
as a unit
A
Group
13
Q
The groups to which we belong and toward which we feel a sense of loyalty
A
In-Groups
14
Q
Unintended, unrecognized consequences of activities that help some part of
the social system
A
Latent Function
15
Q
Intended, obvious consequences of activities designed to help some part of
the social system
A
Manifest Functions
16
Q
Culturally defined standard or rule of conduct
A
Norm
17
Q
Large, complex network of positions created for a specific purpose and
characterized by a hierarchical division of labor
A
Organization
18
Q
The groups to which we don’t belong and toward which we feel a certain amount
of antagonism
A
Out groups
19
Q
Collection of individuals who are together for a relatively long period, whose
members have direct contact with and feel emotional attachment to one another
A
Primary Group
20
Q
Set of expectations—rights, obligations, behaviors, duties—associated with a particular
status
A
Role
21
Q
Frustration people feel when the demands of one role they are expected to fulfill
clash with the demands of another role
A
Role Conflict
22
Q
Situations in which people lack the necessary resources to fulfill the demands of a
particular role
A
Role Strain
23
Q
Relatively impersonal collection of individuals that is established to perform a
specific task
A
Secondary group
24
Q
Stable set of roles, statuses, groups, and organizations—such as the
institution of education, family, politics, religion, health care, or the economy—that provides a
foundation for behavior in some major area of social life
A
Social Institution
25
A population of people living in the same geographic area who share a culture and a
common identity and whose members are subject to the same political authority
Society
26
Any named social position that people can occupy
Status
27
Theoretical perspective that posits that social institutions
are structured to maintain stability and order in society
Structural Functionalist Perspective
28
Something used to represent or stand for something else
Symbol
29
Theoretical perspective that explains society and social structure
through an examination of the microlevel, personal, day-to-day exchanges of people as
individuals, pairs, or groups
Symbolic interactionalism
30
Standard of judgment by which people decide on desirable goals and outcome analysis of existing data: Type of unobtrusive research that relies on data gathered earlier by
someone else for some other purpose
Value
31
Form of unobtrusive research that studies the content of recorded messages,
such as books, speeches, poems, songs, television shows, websites, and advertisements
Content Analysis
32
Variable that is assumed to be caused by, or to change as a result of, the
independent variable
Dependent Variable
33
Research that operates from the ideological position that questions about
human behavior can be answered only through controlled, systematic observations in the real
world
Empirical Research
34
Research method designed to elicit some sort of behavior, typically conducted
under closely controlled laboratory circumstances
Experiment
35
Type of social research in which the researcher observes events as they actually
occur
Field Research
36
Form of social research that relies on existing historical documents as a
source of data
Historical Analysis
37
Researchable prediction that specifies the relationship between two or more
variables
Hypotheses
38
Unquestioned cultural belief that cannot be proved wrong no matter
what happens to dispute it
Incorrigible proposition
39
Variable presumed to cause or influence the dependent variable
Independant variable
40
Measurable event, characteristic, or behavior commonly thought to reflect a
particular concept
Indicator
41
Form of field research in which the researcher observes people
without directly interacting with them and without letting them know that they are being
observed
Non Participant observation
42
Form of field research in which the researcher interacts with subjects,
sometimes hiding his or her identity
Participant observation
43
Capable only of identifying those forces that have a high likelihood, but not a
certainty, of influencing human action
probabilistic
44
Sociological research based on nonnumeric information (text, written
words, phrases, symbols, observations) that describes people, actions, or events in social life
quantitative research: Sociological research based on the collection of numeric data that uses
precise statistical analysis
Qualitative research
45
A problem associated with certain forms of research in which the very act of
intruding into people’s lives may influence the phenomenon being studied
Reactivity
46
Typical of the whole population being studied
Representative
47
Subgroup chosen for a study because its characteristics approximate those of the
entire population
Sample
48
Assumption or prediction that in itself causes the expected event to
occur, thus seeming to confirm the prophecy’s accuracy
Self fulfilling prophecy
49
Process through which the members of a society discover, make
known, reaffirm, and alter a collective version of facts, knowledge, and “truth"
Social construction of reality
50
A false association between two variables that is actually due to the
effect of some third variable
Spurious relationship
51
Form of social research in which the researcher asks subjects a series of questions
verbally, online, or on paper
Survey
52
Set of statements or propositions that seeks to explain or predict a particular aspect of
social life
Theory
53
Research technique in which the researcher, without direct contact with
the subjects, examines the evidence of social behavior that people create or leave behind
variable: Any characteristic, attitude, behavior, or event that can take on two or more values or
attribute
Unobtrusive research
54
Principle that people’s beliefs and activities should be interpreted in terms
of their own culture
cultural relativism
55
Tendency to judge other cultures using one’s own as a standard
ethnocentrism
56
Informal norm that is mildly punished when violated
folkway
57
Culture in which heterosexuality is accepted as the normal, taken-for-granted mode of sexual expression
heteronormative culture
58
Pattern of behavior within existing social institutions that is widely
accepted in a society
Institutionalized norm
59
Category of individuals in whom sexual differentiation is either incomplete or
ambiguous (also known as people with disorders of sex development)
intersex
60
: Artifacts of a society that represent adaptations to the social and physical
environment
material culture
61
Highly codified, formal, systematized norms that bring severe punishment when
violated
mores
62
: Knowledge, beliefs, customs, values, morals, and symbols that are shared
by members of a society and that distinguish the society from others
nonmaterial culture
63
Social response that punishes or otherwise discourages violations of a social norm
sanction
64
: Belief that two biological sex categories, male and female, are permanent,
universal, exhaustive, and mutually exclusive
sexual dichotomy
65
Set of norms governing how one is supposed to behave and what one is entitled to
when sick
sick role
66
Values, behaviors, and artifacts of a group that distinguish its members from the
larger culture
subculture
67
: Process through which people acquire the values and orientations
found in statuses they will likely enter in the future
anticipatory process
68
Various individuals, groups, and organizations that influence the
socialization process
agents of socialization
69
Culture in which personal accomplishments are less important in the
formation of identity than group membership
collectivist culture
70
Stage in the development of self during which a child acquires the ability to take
the role of a group or community (the generalized other) and conform their behavior to broad
societal expectations
game stage
71
Psychological, social, and cultural aspects of masculinity and femininity
gender
72
Perspective of the larger society and its constituent values and attitudes
identity: Essential aspect of who we are, consisting of our sense of self, gender, race, ethnicity,
and religion
generalized other
73
Culture in which personal accomplishments are a more important
component of one’s self-concept than group membership
individualist culture
74
: Sense of who we are that is defined by incorporating the reflected appraisals
of others
looking glass self
75
Stage in the development of self during which a child develops the ability to take a
role, but only from the perspective of one person at a time
play stage
76
Behavior in which the person initiating an action is the same as the person
toward whom the action is directed
reflexive behavior
77
Process of learning new values, norms, and expectations when an adult leaves
an old role and enters a new one
resocialization
78
Ability to see oneself from the perspective of others and to use that perspective in
formulating one’s own behavior
role taking
79
Unique set of traits, behaviors, and attitudes that distinguishes one person from the next;
the active source and passive object of behavior
self
80
Biological maleness or femaleness
sex
81
Process through which one learns how to act according to the rules and
expectations of a particular culture
socialization
82
Place where individuals are cut off from the wider society for an appreciable
period and where together they lead an enclosed, formally administered life
tracking: Grouping of students into different curricular programs, or tracks, based on an
assessment of their academic abilities
total institution
83
Area of social interaction away from the view of an audience, where people can
rehearse and rehash their behavior
back stage
84
Study of social interaction as theater, in which people (“actors”) project images
(“play roles”) in front of others (“audience”)
dramaturgy
85
Area of social interaction where people perform and work to maintain appropriate
impressions
front stage
86
The process by which we define others based on observable cues such as
age, ascribed status characteristics such as race and gender, individual attributes such as
physical appearance, and verbal and nonverbal expressions
impression formation
87
Act of presenting a favorable public image of oneself so that others
will form positive judgment
impression management
88
Deeply discrediting characteristic that is viewed as an obstacle to competent or morally
trustworthy behavior
stigma
89
Marriage/intimate relations within one’s social group
endogamy
90
Marriage/intimate relations outside one’s social group
exogamy
91
Family unit consisting of the parent–child nuclear family and other relatives,
such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins
extended family
92
Two or more persons, including the householder, who are related by birth, marriage, or
adoption and who live together as one household
family
93
Living arrangement composed of one or more people who occupy a housing unit
household
94
Living arrangement in which a married couple sets up residence separate
from either spouse’s family
neolocal residence
95
Family unit consisting of at least one parent and one child
nuclear family
96
Approach to defining deviance that rests on the assumption that all human
behavior can be considered either inherently good or inherently bad
absolutism
97
Official definition of an act of deviance as a crime
Criminalization
98
Theory of deviance positing that people will be prevented from engaging in
a deviant act if they judge the costs of such an act to outweigh its benefits
Deterrence theory
99
Behavior, ideas, or attributes of an individual or group that some people in society
find offensive
deviance
100
Theory stating that deviance is the consequence of the application of rules and
sanctions to an offender; a deviant is an individual to whom the identity “deviant” has been
successfully applied
labeling theory
101
Definition of behavior as a medical problem, mandating the medical profession
to provide some kind of treatment for it
medicalization
102
Approach to defining deviance that rests on the assumption that deviance is socially
created by collective human judgments and ideas
relativism
103
Large hierarchical organization governed by formal rules and regulations and
having clearly specified work task
beuracracy
104
Subdivision of low-level jobs into small, highly specific tasks requiring less skilled
employees
de-skilling
105
Specialization of different people or groups in different tasks, characteristic of
most bureaucracies
division of labor
106
Tendency for people to refrain from contributing to the common good
when a resource is available without any personal cost or contribution
free rider problem
107
Ranking of people or tasks in a bureaucracy from those at the top,
where there is a great deal of power and authority, to those at the bottom, where there is very
little power and authority
hierarchy of authority
108
Process by which the characteristics and principles of the fast-food restaurant
come to dominate other areas of social life
mcdonalidization
109
Company that has manufacturing, production, and marketing
divisions in multiple countries
multinational corporation
110
Potential for a society’s long-term ruin because of individuals’ tendency to
pursue their own short-term interests
social dilemma
111
Framework of society—social institutions, organizations, groups, statuses and
roles, cultural beliefs, and institutionalized norms—that adds order and predictability to our
private lives
social structure
112
Situation in which people acting individually and in their own self interest use up commonly available (but limited) resources, creating disaster for the entire
community
tragedy of commons
113
Inability to afford the minimal requirements for sustaining a reasonably
healthy existence
absolute poverty
114
Possession of some status or quality that compels others to obey one’s directives or
commands
authority
115
: Stratification system based on heredity, with little movement allowed across
strata
caste system
116
Process of expanding economic markets by invading and establishing control over
a weaker country and its people
colonization
117
Cultural belief that those who succeed in society are those who work
hardest and have the best abilities and that those who suffer don’t work hard enough or lack
the necessary traits or abilities
competitive individualism
118
Individuals, such as middle managers and supervisors, whose
positions place them between two major classes, making it difficult to identify with one side or
the other
contradictory class locations
119
Stratification system in which high-status groups own land and
have power based on noble birth
estate system (feudal system)
120
Situation in which people in the lower classes come to accept a belief
system that harms them; the primary means by which powerful classes in society prevent
protest and revolution
false consciousness
121
Land, commercial enterprises, factories, and wealth that form the
economic basis of class societies
means of production
122
In a society stratified by social class, a group of people who have an intermediate
level of wealth, income, and prestige, such as managers, supervisors, executives, small business
owners, and professionals
middle class
123
In a society stratified by social class, a group of people who work for minimum wage or
are chronically unemployed
poor
124
Amount of yearly income a family requires to meet its basic needs, according to
the federal government
poverty line
125
Percentage of people whose income falls below the poverty line
poverty rate
126
Ability to affect decisions in ways that benefit a person or protect their interests
power
127
Respect and honor given to some people in society
prestige
128
Individuals’ economic position compared with the living standards of the
majority in the society
relative property
129
Economic form of inequality in which some people are legally the property of others
slavery
130
Group of people who share a similar economic position in a society, based on their
wealth and income
social class
131
Movement of people or groups from one class to another
social mobility
132
Prestige, honor, respect, and lifestyle associated with different positions
or groups in society
socioeconomic status
133
Ranking system for groups of people that perpetuates unequal rewards and life
chances in society
stratification
134
Conditions that global financial organizations attach to countries to
which they provide development aid
structural adjustments
135
in a society stratified by social class, a group of people who have high income and
prestige and who own vast amounts of property and other forms of wealth, such as owners of
large corporations, top financiers, rich celebrities and politicians, and members of prestigious
families
upper class
136
In a society stratified by social class, a group of people who have a low level of
wealth, income, and prestige, such as industrial and factory workers, office workers, clerks, and
farm and manual laborers
working class
137
Employed people who consistently earn wages but do not make enough to
survive (see also near-poor
working poor
138
: Skin color prejudice within an ethnoracial group
colorism
139
A form of exploitation in which the customs, practices, or fashion of one
culture is adopted by members of another culture
cultural appropriation
140
Unfair treatment of people based on some social characteristic, such as race,
ethnicity, or sex
discrimination
141
Sense of community derived from the cultural heritage shared by a category of
people with common ancestry
ethnicity
142
Prejudiced attitudes or beliefs that operate at a level below conscious awareness
implicit bias
143
Laws, customs, and practices that systematically reflect and produce racial
and ethnic inequalities in a society, whether or not the individuals maintaining these laws,
customs, and practices have racist intentions
institutional racism
144
Individual expression of racist attitudes or behaviors
personal racism
145
Rigidly held, unfavorable attitudes, beliefs, and feelings about members of a
different group based on a social characteristic such as race, ethnicity, or gender
prejudice
146
Form of discrimination expressed subtly and indirectly through feelings of
discomfort, uneasiness, and fear, which motivate avoidance rather than blatant discrimination
quiet disinformation
147
Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social
behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior
racism
148
Overgeneralized belief that a certain trait, behavior, or attitude characterizes all
members of some identifiable group
stereotype
149
Subordination of women that is part of the everyday workings of
economics, law, politics, and other social institutions
institutional sexism
150
Female-dominated society that gives higher prestige and value to women than to
men
matriarchy
151
Practice of treating people as objects
objectification
152
Male-dominated society in which cultural beliefs and values give higher prestige and
value to men than to women
patriarchy
153
System of beliefs that asserts the inferiority of one sex and justifies gender-based
inequality
sexism
154
Sociologist who studies trends in population characteristic
demographer
