Midterm Exam 1 Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
The study of thoughts and behaviors during the developmental periods of life.
Goals of Developmental Psychology
- identifying deviations from “typical”
- identifying group differences
- identifying problems
- providing opportunities for support/intervention
- identifying origins of adult behavior
Three Domains of Child Development
Physical, cognitive, and social-emotional
How can the 3 Domains of Child Development Overlap?
A physical development trait such as giving birth overlaps with social development because the development of social skills and ultimately love is usually a factor in having children.
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Continuous change occurs gradually over time with many small changes. Discontinuous change occurs suddenly. The debate here is whether development is continuous or discontinuous, meaning it occurs gradually or rapidly.
Critical vs. Sensitive Periods
A critical period means that a change must occur during a particular period of time to fully develop. A sensitive period is optimal for changes to occur, but they are not required. The debate is whether there are critical periods or if there are only sensitive periods.
Stability vs. Change
Essentially, this debate asks if there is such a thing as a stable trait, meaning a trait that is genetically predetermined and will not change over the course of one’s life.
Universality vs. Individual Differences
Universal differences are those that everyone experiences the same. Individual differences vary from person to person. Universal differences come first and are presented during fetal development.
Tabula Rasa
Locke: This theory says that humans are born a blank slate, and it’s our experiences that make us who we are. This theory is heavily nurture-based.
Innate Morality
Jacques: This theory states that humans are born as perfect beings, and their experiences ruin that. This theory explains nurture because it shows how experiences are more influential in one’s development.
Natural Selection
Darwin: This theory states that all living creatures are born and developed differently, but some versions are more beneficial or hindering depending on the environment. This theory supports a mix of nature and nurture because it says that people are born with traits that affect behavior, but the environment will also affect whether traits are passed on.
Heritability
Heritability is the degree to which variation of a characteristic in a population can be explained by genetic factors. This is used to explain differences in society (differences are 50% likely to be explained by genetics).
Twin Studies
Twin studies are helpful in research because twins have the same genetics (monozygotic) and grew up in the same environment, meaning that nature/nurture is a constant.
Adoption Studies
Adoption studies are helpful in research because they show if children are more affected by their genetics (like biological parents) or more affected by the environment (like adoptive parents).
Twin-Adoption Studies
This is the best form of nature/nurture research because the twins have the same genetics but were raised in different environments and therefore can be compared as to how similar they are.
Epigenesis
Epigenesis is how biology and the environment influence each other. Genetics can affect what environment you end up in, which in turn can affect the way you think.
Biological Theory of Development
This theory uses biological data to explain development. One example of the use of biological theory is Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device. The LAC is said to be a part of the brain that aids in the understanding of grammar. This section of the brain has a critical period, which explains why it is hard to learn grammar as an adult.
Psychoanalytic Theory of Development
This theory states that the explanation for behavior is often unconscious, based on mental conflict, and explains why adults act the way they do. During the prenatal development and birth chapter, we talked about breastfeeding and some potential struggles with it. A psychoanalytic theory based on this is that if a baby were weaned off breastfeeding too early, it would result in later issues with nail-biting or smoking because that occurred during Freud’s oral stage.
Learning Theory of Development
This theory states that development can be a cause of classical and operant conditioning. For example, when an infant is learning a language, operant conditioning (use of rewards or punishments) may be administered unknowingly by the parent.
Cognitive Theory of Development
This theory states that the way we take in/process information explains development. This was discussed when we talked about cognitive development in infants and how Piaget believed that infants practiced accommodation and assimilation when discovering new things according to their pre-existing schemas.
Contextual Theory of Development
This theory looks at the big picture to explain the smaller parts of development. For example, this occurs when analyzing a child’s rate of language development and understanding that this may be affected by economic status, cultural differences, etc.
Menstrual Phase
The inner lining of the uterus sheds and is released for 5-6 days.
Follicular Phase
New, healthy, and thicker uterine lining develops for 7-8 days.
Luteal Phase
Hormones are released along with an egg. If fertilized in 1-2 days, the egg will attach to the uterus lining.
Male Spermatogenesis
Male sperm does not develop until puberty. Once puberty hits, sperm are produced at a rate of 100 sperm/sec and release 200-500 million sperm each ejaculation. The head of the sperm is used for reproduction, the body is for cell life, and the tail is for movement.
Infertility
Infertility is defined as failure to conceive after a full year of trying.
Fertility Drugs
Promote the release of hormones in the luteal phase or the release of eggs. This would assist women who have biological problems with fertility.
Intrauterine Insemination
The insertion of the father’s sperm into the mother’s uterus. This would help with sperm that can’t swim far or with same-sex or single individuals.
In-Virto Fertilization
mother’s egg extracted and fertilized by father’s sperm in a culture dish, then transferred back to the mother’s uterus. This would help with women whose eggs are not releasing correctly or men whose sperm are not going in the fallopian tubes correctly.
Gamete Intrafallopian Tube Transfer
mother’s egg and father’s sperm deposited into fallopian tubes. This would be helpful if either the egg or sperm is not finding its way into the tubes naturally.
Embryo Transfer
donor sperm or donor egg fertilized in a clinic using IVF and then deposited into a mother’s uterus. This would be helpful for eggs or sperm that are ineffective or same sex/single individuals.
Surrogacy
Another woman carries a donated fertilized egg through pregnancy, then allows parents to adopt the child at birth. This would be helpful for a female who has a deformed reproductive system or same sex couples.
The Human Genome
The human genome contains 23 chromosomes from the egg and 23 from the sperm. Each gene within a chromosome contains 2 alleles, one from the mother and one from the father.
Determination of Sex
If a child has 2 X sex chromosomes, it is a girl. If the child has one X sex chromosome and one Y sex chromosome, it is a boy.
Polygenic Trait
A polygenic trait is a trait that has many genes.
Homozygotic vs. Heterozygotic Traits
Heterozygotic traits have different alleles, while homozygotic traits have the same alleles.
Dominant vs. Recessive Traits
A dominant trait is one that is expressed. A recessive trait is a trait that is not expressed when paired with dominant traits.
XYY Syndrome
Males exhibit more masculine qualities but have issues like delayed development and aggression.
Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)
Males produce less testosterone and therefore display less manly qualities. This is also characterized by infertility and mild intellectual disability.
Turner Syndrome (X)
Females produce little estrogen and do not develop breasts or go through menstruation.
XXX Syndrome
Females tend to behave relatively normally.
Range of Reaction
The idea that a phenotype depends on both the genotype and the environment.
Passive G-E Correlation
parents passing down genes and form environment.
Evocative G-E Correlation
People notice traits in a child and encourage specific environments where that child may thrive.
Active G-E Correlation
A person recognizes their strengths and weaknesses and looks for environments where they will be successful.
Issues with Genetic Testing
Some issues surrounding genetic testing and reproductive assistance include the cost, genetic expectations, mental health, and genetic risk.
Genetic Counseling
A genetic counselor is someone who advocates for a patient going through infertility. They provide support by mapping out all possible genetic outcomes based on a problem and assist that patient in making an educated decision that is best for them.
The Germinal (Zygotic) Stage:
This stage is characterized by 1-2 weeks of rapid cell division. Then, the cell implants into the uterus, and the next stage is initiated.
The Embryonic Stage
This stage lasts approximately 6 weeks. The placenta is developed, which transfers nutrients/waste between mother and embryo via the umbilical cord. At this point, the embryo is attached to the mother, and cells begin to differentiate. Things like the heart, spinal cord, and basic facial features are formed.
a. Cell differentiation is split into three parts: the ectoderm (external), mesoderm (intermediate), and endoderm (central).
b. Development follows cephalocaudal (head to toe) and proximodistal (in to out) patterns.
The Fetal Stage
lasts from 9 weeks until birth. Development still follows the previous patterns.
a. Quickening occurs around 16-20 weeks, where fetal movement is detected for the first time.
b. The age of viability occurs around 24 weeks, where the odds are that if you are born, you will survive more than 50% of the time.
Teratogens: Disease
It’s hard for viruses to affect fetuses, but the issue arises when the virus can be passed through birth.
Teratogens: Drugs
- Alcohol can cause fetal alcohol syndrome, which will affect intellectual and physical development.
- Females who are older, educated, employed, and unmarried are the most at risk.
Teratogens: Environmental Hazards
Pesticides, water/air pollutants, cat poop, radiation, and food borne illness are examples of environmental teratogens.
Teratogens: Maternal Conditions
The mother being older than 35, stress, poor nutrition, and prenatal care can negatively affect pregnancy.
Cultural Differences in the Experience of Pregnancy
- In our culture, we endorse reproductive freedom, while other cultures believe there is a higher power determining whether you are meant to get pregnant.
- The descriptions of pregnancy vary as well. In the US, we complain about weight gain, but in other cultures, it is celebrated.
- Individualistic vs. Collectivist cultures.
Gender Differences in the Experience of Pregnancy
- Women are more anxious but report more positive feelings than men do.
- Men are less invested emotionally.
APGAR Neonatal Assessment
- Appearance: skin color
- Pulse: heartbeat
- Grimace: typical irritability
- Activity: rigid/floppy
- Respiration: breathing
Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
Assesses sensory/perception awareness
Father Reactions to Birth
Fathers report high expectations of involvement in childcare, which decreases over time. They also care more about personal relationships.
Mother Reactions to Birth
Mothers have mixed feelings. Many mothers experience baby blues after birth. This could be due to loss of attention, social life changes, and physical recovery. When these feelings persist and become severe, the woman may develop postpartum depression.
Sleep Patterns in Newborns
Newborns get a lot of sleep in small increments, where most of that time sleeping is spent in REM. They still experience a nocturnal sleep schedule from the womb but usually grow out of this by 9 months.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Newborn Sleeping Arrangements
In most of the world, infants sleep in the same bed as their parents. In the US, infants have their crib and sometimes their room. These differences can be explained by individualistic vs. collectivist cultures.
Neuronal Level Brain Changes
At birth, neurons are far and few between. Then, there is a boom of neural connections (synaptogenesis). By puberty, the neurons have pruned out to be what we see in adults.
Structure with Most Brain Growth
The most growth occurs in the cortex of the brain.
Experience Expectant Approach
The genetic code determines brain development. The only way experiences can affect development is if they get in the way or hinder it. Most support exists for this approach since many scientists back it up.
Experience Dependent Approach
Environment can increase the rate of brain development or inhibit it. There is very little support for this theory. Support comes mainly from companies selling educational programs.
Vision Abilities and Limitations
Newborns do not have many vision skills initially. They are very nearsighted and have trouble tracking fast objects.
Vision Preferences
Newborns prefer high-contrast, colorful, patterned things. They also prefer face-shaped patterns.
Depth Perception Development
It can be debated whether it is developed through learned experience by crawling or whether it can be determined by nature.
Depth Perception Test
Depth perception is the ability to determine whether things are near or far. This is tested by an experiment called a visual cliff.
Hearing Abilities, Limitations, and Preferences
a. Sound is better developed than vision due to more prenatal auditory stimulation. Infants have difficulty picking up on soft sounds, short sounds, and low-pitched sounds.
b. Infants favor the sounds of human language, specifically the mother’s voice and other female voices. They also like white noise.
Smell Abilities and Preferences
Neonates can discriminate between odors and respond to them. Ultimately, they prefer the odor of their mother.
Taste Abilities and Preferences
Newborns are sensitive to taste, and they can react accordingly. Sweet solutions have a calming effect on infants, so they prefer them more.
Rooting Reflex
Infants turn their mouths and heads in the direction of a stroke on the cheek. This is evolutionary because it helps infants find the mother’s nipple.
Moro Reflex
When infants arch their backs, fling out their arms and legs, and draw them back after a sudden change. This is evolutionary because it helps with falls.
Grasping Reflex
a reflex in which infants grasp objects that cause pressure against their palm. This is evolutionary because it aids in holding things.
Stepping Reflex
a reflex in which infants take steps when held under the arms by leaning forward so that their feet press against the ground. This is evolutionary because it helps aid in walking.
Babinski Reflex
a reflex in which infants fan their toes when the undersides of their feet are stroked. This is evolutionary because it helps with walking.
Tonic-Neck Reflex
a reflex in which infants turn their head to one side, extend the arm and leg on that side, and flex the limbs on the opposite side. This is evolutionary because it aids in walking.
Sequence of Locomotion Development
Lifting heads, scooting, crawling, walking, running.
Grasping Abilities, Limitations, and Sequence
Infants use the ulnar grasp and the pincer grasp reflexively. These grasps gradually develop into voluntary actions. The ulnar grasp comes first, and then the pincer grasp comes after.
Potty Training Sequence of Development
Infants start with not understanding the urge to use the bathroom. As they grow older, they will begin to show signs that they need to go. They will become potty trained with pooping before peeing.
Application of Potty Training to the Psychoanalytic Perspective
In late infancy, a child is in the anal stage. Freud believed that if they had trouble being potty trained, then people would grow up to have self-control issues.
Breastfeeding Benefits/Drawbacks
Benefits include the deliverance of nutrients and antibodies and forms a connection between the baby and the mother. The main drawback is that this process is very time-consuming, and the mom needs to be with the baby all the time.
Bottle Feeding Formula Benefits/Drawbacks
Benefits include the fact that it can address and cater to certain allergies and that it provides mothers/caregivers who don’t have the means to breastfeed another option. Drawbacks include price and availability.
Bottle Feeding Breast Milk Benefits and Drawbacks
Benefits include the fact that it’s a less time-consuming way for babies to get breast milk. The main drawback is that finding time to pump and having a place to store the milk can be tricky.
Piaget and Cognitive Development
He believed that children developed cognitively using schemas, which explains differences in thinking.
Piaget and Equilibrium
Relating to equilibrium, when our schemas turn out to be incorrect, we are motivated to change them because we feel “off-balance” since our equilibrium was knocked askew.
Assimilation and Accomodation
- Assimilation is when you experience something new and add to your files. For example, when you encounter a new type of dog.
- Accommodation is when you have to change your pre-existing ideas to fit something new. For example, you learn that there is more than one variable in algebra.
Sequence of Sensorimotor Stage
Reflexive Schemas, Primary Circular Reactions, Secondary Circular Reactions, Coordinated Secondary Circular, Tertiary Circular Reactions, and Symbolic Representation.
Reflexive Schemas
Occur from 0-1 month and usually is where taste profiles develop.
Primary Circular Reactions
Occurs during the 1-4 months range. It is characterized by repeated voluntary reactions focused on the self.
Secondary Circular Reactions
Occurs for 4-8 months. It is characterized by repeated behaviors focused outside of oneself.
Coordinated Secondary Circular Reactions
Occurs from 8 months to one year. This stage is characterized by combining motions of secondary circular reactions and is often goal oriented.
Tertiary Circular Reactions
occur during 1 – 1.5 years. Involves modifying behaviors to assess different outcomes.
Symbolic Representation
Occurs during 1.5 to 2 years. Thoughts become separate from actions, and the use of brainstorming occurs rather than just trying different things out.
Criticisms of Piaget
Researchers believe that he may have underestimated the age at which children gain capabilities. He measures infant performance rather than cognitive competence.
Alternative Piaget Method
The use of an impossible vs. possible event. Essentially, an infant is shown one possible event and one impossible event. If they show a difference in response, then they notice the difference and, therefore, perceive the tested concept.
Results from Alternative Piaget Method
They find that infants begin to understand these differences in object permanence around 2 months of age.
Criticisms of Alternate Piaget Method
This way of testing can result in many false positives and false negatives.
Vygotsky and Cognitive Development
He believed that language facilitates cognitive development, specifically through private speech. Additionally, he thinks that social support plays a large part in development. He focuses on the ideas of the zone of proximal development, scaffolding, joint attention, and observational learning.
Similarities/Differences of Piaget vs. Vygotsky
Piaget believed in a more concrete and pre-determined set of stages that child development followed. Vygotsky believed that development was often affected by one’s environment.
Learning and Cognitive Development
Observational learning
Classical/operant conditioning
Memory Processing and cognitive Development
The mind processes multiple events through the memory processing system. Then, through memory retrieval, a situation may be remembered where a child participated in a type learning, and that outcome is recalled.
Memory Development
Infants don’t have the memory processing system available to them at full use. Therefore, we can’t remember anything that is an explicit memory in life before age 2-3. However, implicit memories are still processed and retrieved.
Early Speech Perception
Infants pick up on language early and can distinguish between phonemes. Habituation and dishabituation tests are used to see if infants can distinguish between languages. This decreases after 6 months of age.
Speech Development Sequence
- Prewords come first, with crying, cooing, and babbling.
- Then the words come, first with one-word and two-word stage
Speech Development Characteristics
- Comprehension exceeds production
- Under extension (word or rule is used more limited than it is) and overextension (word or rule is used more broadly than it is).
Learning Theories and Language Development
a. Operant conditioning: rewards and punishments are used by parents, sometimes unknowingly. An example may be when a parent discourages emotions without language by saying, “use your words.”
b. Observational learning: When infants repeat what they hear. This is often the explanation for a first word.
Problems with the Learning Theories of Development
Problems with these methods include low and inconsistent guidance, evolution of pidgin languages, and overextension.
Chromsky’s Language Acquisition Device
Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device: there is an area of the brain that is prewired to understand grammatical rules, but after a critical period, goes away.
Problems with Chromsky’s Language Acquisition Device
Learning a second language and overextension of grammar are supportive of this theory. The problem is that there is no biological evidence supporting this theory.
Language Acquisition Support System
Humans are raised in environments that provide scaffolding for language acquisition. This explains development because adults will adjust how they speak when around children, which may allow them to become familiar with a language and then learn its advanced qualities.
Emergenist Theory of Language Development
The view that the true answer lies in a mix of all the theories. This resolves debate because no one is completely wrong or completely right.
