MIDTERM EXAM #1 Flashcards
what is the order of naming plants?
1) common name (lower case)
2) genus name (capitalized and italicized)
3) specific epithet (italicized)
4) authority (capitalized)
5) family name (ends in -aceae, always capitalized, never italicized)
what is a liana?
climbing, twining or creeping plant with woody stems
what is a vine?
plant with a weak stem that derives support from climbing, creeping or twining
what is a graminoid?
grass-like herb
what is an herb?
plant without a persistent woody stem
what is a shrub?
plant with many woody persistent stems, generally shorter than a tree when fully mature.
what is a tree?
a tall, woody plant often with secondary branches that are supported on a main stem
what are seedless vascular plants called?
ferns
what is an annual plant?
plant that completes its life cycle (seed to seed and dies) within 12 months
what is a perennial plant?
a plant that typically lives for many years (>3)
what did Aldo Leopold invent?
the field of wildlife management
what is the definition of natural history?
scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the entire ecosystem.
what are plants called that produces seeds?
spermatophyte
what are gymnosperms?
they are naked seeded plants that don’t produce fruits and flowers
what is an angiosperm?
they are plants that produce flowers and fruits
what is a cell wall, what is the function of them?
cell walls are exclusive to plants and are made up of cellulose microfibrils that provide a rigidity texture. they’re generally permeable
what is the organization of the inside of plant cells (increasing in size and complexity)
cells –> tissues –> organs
what is the organization of the outside of plant cells (increasing in size and complexity)
epidermal cells –> xylem –> leaf
what is the plasma membrane?
the plasma membrane is a semipermeable structure that is involved in signaling, organization, and transport of cell materials
what are characteristic components of plant cells?
plastids
what are the three types of plastids and what are their brief functions?
-chloroplasts (double membrane bound structures involved in photosynthesis)
-chromoplasts (pigment synthesis and storage) (reds, oranges, yellows)
-amyloplasts (storage of starch ((storage roots)))
what is a vacuole?
a vacuole is a membrane bound organ that is involved in storage, secretion, and excretion of water. pigments may also be stored in the vacuole.
what is the nucleus?
double membrane bound structure with pores that contains most of the cell’s DNA
what are mitochondria?
mitochondria are double membrane bound structures that are involved in converting carbohydrates into usable energy (ATP).
what is a shoot apex?
the tip of the plants leafy shoot; the plants growing point
what are meristems?
meristems are where cell division is concentrated and growth and differentiation begins.
what is the apical meristem?
where the meristem occurs at the tip of a shoot, at an apex.
what is differentiation?
the process of starting with a generic cell produced from a meristem and having it be transformed into a cell with a specialized function
what is the epidermis?
dermal tissue
what is a stem transverse section?
a piece of stem that is removed between two leaves that allows you to see inside the plants tissues
what is the cortex?
ground tissue underneath the epidermis and surrounding the vascular bundles
what is pith?
ground tissue occupying the central core of a plant stem
draw a picture of the inside of a plant stem
check google doc for answer
what is the functional role of mertistematic cells?
division of new cells for growth or repair
what is the functional role of ground tissue?
storage, processing and physical support
what is the functional role of epidermal tissue?
protection and sometimes nutrient absorption. (often only 1 cell layer thick)
what is the functional role of vascular tissue?
movement of fluids and foods around cell and physical support.
draw the difference between a spine and a thorn
the thorn should be above a leaf and a spine should be below a leaf (check doc)
what is a scape?
an organ that provides support for flowers
what is a leaf?
structure involved in plant photosynthesis. is 1 of 2 main structural axes and is an above ground organ
what are flowers/cones, fruits and seeds involved with?
plant sexual reproduction
what are inflorescences?
groupings of separate flowers
what are roots?
organ typically found underground, no leaves or nodes.
what is modular growth?
plant growth that involves adding repeated units. is exclusive to plant tissues
what are stems?
1 of 2 main structural axes, usually above ground organs. they support the plants other organs
what is the function of stems?
stems support leaves and reproductive organs, transport fluids, store materials, and produce new tissues/organs.
what is a node and an internode?
a node is a point of proliferation of leaves/flowers. an internode is the stem segment between nodes
what are four specialized stem examples?
rhizomes, stolons, thorns and cladophylls
what is a rhizome?
a rhizome is a below ground, horizontally growing stem. may produce roots and leaves at nodes
what is a stolon?
a stolon is an above ground, horizontally growing stem. may produce roots and leaves at nodes. known as “runners”
what is a thorn?
reduced, stiffened stem w/ sharp points and rounded shape, they occur on the upper side of the axil.
what is a cladophyll?
a cladophyll is a photosynthetic stem that functions as and may resemble leaves
what are 3 examples of specialized leaves?
1) grasses (Poaceae)
2) conifers (Cupressaceae, Pinaceae)
3) spines
what are spines?
stiff, slender, sharp pointed modified leaves arising from below the epidermis on the lower side of the axil
what are prickles?
prickles are sharp, small outgrowth of epidermis or bark. (roses have prickles)
what are the function of roots?
roots absorb water and nutrients, anchor the plant, and store nutrients and other plant products
what are the two types of root systems?
fibrous root system and taproot system
what is a fibrous root system?
thin, moderately branching from the stem. no single, main large root. usually seen in the grass family
what is a taproot system?
enlarged, somewhat straight to tapering root that grows downward. it forms a center from which other smaller roots grow laterally (carrots).
what are the two components of a leaf?
the petiole (stalk) and the blade (flat, large area)
what is photosynthesis?
photosynthesis is a set of biochemical reactions that allow a plant to aquire energy from sunlight and in the process chemically sequester carbon from the atmosphere. it is the most important chemical reactions in the biosphere.
what is a light reaction or energy transduction reactions?
capture of light energy.
where are the pigments and enzymes involved in the light reactions located?
inside the chloroplast on the thylakoid membranes
what is the equation for photosynthesis?
(living plastids) + sunlight + 6 CO2 + 6 H20 –> C6 H12 06 + 6 02
what are carbon fixation reactions or Calvin cycle?
this is the 2nd process in photosynthesis and occurs when energy captured from the light reaction is combined with carbon from C02 to form organic carbon containing compounds (glucose)
where do carbon fixation reactions occur?
this process occurs in the stroma of the chloroplasts
what is the stroma (not stoma)?
the stroma is the gelatin like outer substance surrounding the thylakoid membranes
what is primary productivity?
primary productivity is the amount of carbon containing organic compounds produced from photosynthesis. primary productivity is typically measured as g carbon/ m^2 / time period.
how do you see indicators of primary productivity?
-changes in CO2 amounts near leaves
-changes in leaf color
-digging up and weighing plant matter
draw the inside of a leaf cell tissue
reference module 8 notes
what is a cuticle?
a cuticle is a waxy, protective covering that are associated with the outer surface of epidermal cells.
what is the main job of the cuticle?
prevent too much water loss
how many cell layers thick are a typical epidermal cell?
one cell layer thick
what are mesophyll cells and what is their function?
cells found in the “middle of the leaf”. these cells perform most of the photosynthesis that the plant needs
what are xylem cells responsible for?
xylem cells are in charge of water transportation
what are phloem cells responsible for?
sugar produced from photosynthesis will be delivered to the rest of the plant via phloem cells.
where are xylem and phloem cells located?
vascular bundles
what are stomata?
a stomata is the opening at the bottom of the cuticle that is a pathway to the outside of the cell (atmosphere)
what are guard cells?
guard cells are inflatable cells that’re responsible for the opening and closing of the stoma.
CO2 from the atmosphere can go into the ______ cells via the ____ and that CO2 can be used to fixate ______ in the photosynthetic process.
mesophyll.
stoma.
carbon.
what is transpiration?
transpiration is when water is lost inside the leaf as it evaporates into the atmosphere as a result from the stoma being open.
when the ____ ____ are deflated and the ____ are closed there is no CO2 uptake or ________
guard cells.
stoma.
transpiration
what does stomatal closure depend on? (4 main things)
1) light amount
2) temperature
3) relative humidity in the atmosphere
4) wind speed
the rate of transpiration is ____ with a ______ concentration of water outside the leaf (humid day)
lower, higher.
or
higher, lower
the concentration of water inside a leaf is much ______ than that in the atmosphere
higher
how is water concentration measured?
water concentration is measured using “water potential” with pure water equaling 0 MPa = millipascals, a measure of pressure
as the concentration of water declines, what does the concentration of water potential do?
the water potential declines with the concentration of water
when differences in water potential exist, movement of water will be in a direction from the _____ to ______ water potential or the water will try to ______.
highest to lowest water potential.
equalize
with stoma open, the water potential difference causes _______ at the leaf surface and pulls water from the soil through the plant’s ______ _______.
evaporation.
vascular system
when the water potential difference between the inside and outside of the leaf is too great, what will plants do?
many plants will close their stoma to avoid too much water loss.
in C3 photosynthesis, what is the primary carbon capturing enzyme?
Rubisco.
in C3 photosynthesis, when the stoma are open, Rubisco will capture ____ from ____ when the concentration of CO2 inside the leaf is relatively _____.
carbon from CO2.
high
if the stoma are closed, then the concentration of CO2 can be decreased inside individual _____ cells by the uptake of carbon caused by _____ ______ or dark reactions.
mesophyll cells.
carbon fixation
when stoma are closed, Rubisco can capture ____ instead of _____. this process is called ______ and results in no net gain in energy for the plant, instead a loss of carbon.
oxygen instead of CO2.
photorespiration
in photorespiration, plants loose carbon/ energy due to ____ _____.
fixing oxygen
do all C3 plants execute photorespiration?
yes
what is water use efficiency a measure of?
water use efficiency is a measure of how much carbon is fixed for “x” amount of water transpired.
in C4 photosynthesis, carbon is gathered in the _____ cells and then stored in 4 ____ ____ temporarily.
mesophyll cells.
4 carbon acids
in C4 photosynthesis, do the carbon fixation reactions occur in mesophyll cells (where carbon is captured)? if not, where do they occur?
no, not in mesophyll cells. In C4 plants, carbon is fixated in a relatively small number of cells surrounding vascular bundles that’re called Bundle Sheath cells.
the 4 carbon acids are transported into the bundle sheath cells, where ___ is chemically _____
CO2 is chemically reformed
the concentration of CO2 in these cells remains very ____, even with stoma closed for relatively long periods.
high
does photorespiration occur in C4 photosynthesis?
no
Do C4 plants still use Rubisco?
yes, to produce glucose
true or false: in C4 plants, CO2 uptake and carbon fixation are separate in space
true
true or false: C4 photosynthesis is relatively new and hasn’t evolved very much
false, C4 photosynthesis has evolved many times
water use efficiency in C4 plants is on average ~__-__ times ____ than C3 plants
~1.5-2X greater
what percent of grass species used C4 photosynthesis?
~46% of grass species. C4 photosynthesis is present in many plant families though
what environments are C4 plants likely to be found in?
high light, high temperatures, drought prone, tropical and subtropical environments
why is C4 photosynthesis considered an energetic cost?
C4 photosynthesis is an energetic cost in reconstituting CO2 because when CO2 is released into the Calvin cycle (dark reactions) it uses up some glucose (energy) that could’ve been used for growth and development.
in CAM photosynthesis, the stoma open at ____ or ____ ______ when temperatures and relative humidity are _____.
night or early morning.
lower
in CAM photosynthesis, where is carbon fixed from CO2?
carbon is fixed in 4 carbon storage acids in mesophyll cells.
in the day, when stoma are ____ but the energy is available from the ____ ______, CO2 is moved from the 4 carbon acids and the carbon fixation process continues
closed.
light reactions
true or false: in CAM photosynthesis, CO2 uptake and carbon fixation is separate in time
true
in CAM plants, water use efficiency is up to ____ times greater than ___ plants.
5X greater than C4 plants
CAM photosynthesis is present in ~40 families, most being epiphytes or _____
succulents
what type of environment is CAM photosynthesis most commonly found in?
high light, high temperatures, and drought prone environments
why are CAM plants energetic costs?
they’re energetic costs because they have to reconstitute CO2 and they have their stoma open for very short periods each day. CAM plants also grow very slowly and their 4-carbon storage acids in vacuoles is limited.
a special combination of plant ____ and environmental and _____ conditions are required for CAM plants to be competitive.
growth.
ecological
____ and ___ plants loose energy while they’re breaking down their 4 carbon acids.
CAM and C4
what is the definition of drought?
drought is a period of low precipitation; soil moisture is low enough to negatively affect plant growth.
what happens with insufficient soil moisture in regards to the stoma and photosynthesis?
stoma are closed and therefore photosynthesis cannot generate glucose which is necessary for plant growth
what is resistance?
capacity of defending oneself from a harmful environmental agent
what are xerophytes?
plant species with a relatively high level of drought resistance
what are different drought resistance strategies used by plants?
1) increased water use efficiency (= carbon gained/water loss)
2) drought avoidance
3) drought tolerance
4) drought deciduousness
how do plants gain a higher water use efficiency?
-CAM or C4 photosynthesis
-improved stomatal control
how do plants exhibit drought avoidance?
they only grow when water is available and then produce seeds or go dormant before the drought occurs
how do plants exhibit drought deciduousness?
plants organs (mostly leaves) with high potential for water loss are shed when soil moisture is low and they’re regrown when soil moisture is high. very common
what does drought tolerance allow plants to do?
having drought tolerance strategies allows plants to continue growing and use water despite environmental conditions that would otherwise be associated with drought conditions.
how do plants exhibit drought tolerance (many types)?
1) increased water use efficiency
2) phreatophytes
3) succulents
4) sclerophyllous
5) trichomes
6) reduced surface to volume ratio
what are phreatophytes?
plants that are perennial and deeply rooted in ground water. they’re able to grow when the top soil is dry
what are succulents?
plants with very high water content in their tissues (up to 90%). they store excess water in drought conditions and slowly release this water during photosynthesis
what are sclerophyllous plants?
plants with very stiff and firm leaves that often have a thick, waxy cuticle
why does having a reduced surface to volume ratio, especially in leaves and stems, beneficial for plants in drought conditions?
the surface of leaves and some stems represents the photosynthetic area, and therefore transpiring area. the lower the surface to volume ratio signifies a lower transpiration area and less water loss.
what are trichomes?
plant “hairs” that reflect light and increase the thickness of the boundary layer.
what is a boundary layer?
the layer of air in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface. air flow (velocity) is lower here due to increased resistance to flow caused by the surface.
with trichomes present, the wind velocity at the surface is ___ than without them.
lower
with a smaller boundary level, the more water that is going to be ________ ____ of the cells surface.
transpired out
with a smaller boundary level, the average water potential is _____ and it is ______ at the surface
lower.
drier
boundary layers occur at the level of an individual leaf, ____ or _______
plant or community
when observing a wind velocity profile diagram, what do longer vectors mean for speed?
longer vectors = faster speeds.
once vectors are the same size, it is the ___ of the _____ _____
end of the boundary layer
what is growth and how is it accomplished by plants?
irreversible increase in size or mass.
-mitosis cell division to produce new cells in meristems
-cell enlargement (individual level)
what is development?
development involves differentiation of a simple cell type into a more specialized cell type (tissues with main functions)
undifferentiated _____ ____can be caused to differentiate into many different types of cells
meristem cells
what are examples of some functions of differentiated plant cells?
-storage
-support (fibers, relatively thick walled cells)
-transport (xylem and phloem cells)
-secretion
-photosynthesis
-protection
-water movement (xylem and vessel elements)
-sugar movement (phloem)
Fibers have tapered ends and are primarily produced in areas where ________ _______ is required, and they are often found in groups.
mechanical support
in angiosperms, phloem cells have 2 types of cells, what are these called and are they dead or alive when mature?
1) sieve tube element (larger and dead at maturity)
2) companion cell (smaller, alive at maturity)
at the ____ of ____ between the sieve tube elements in phloem there are special structures called _____ _____
point of connection
sieve plates
at a sieve plate there are _____ _____ that act as a plug for the plates
slime plugs
how is primary growth generally different between plants and animals?
in plants:
-cells actually enlarge in size whereas in animals they don’t.
-growth continues throughout a plant’s entire life whereas in animals its only for a section of their life
-growth increases the number of parts/cells
-a seedling does not resemble an adult plant
-growth is by the addition of new parts ahead or around the older parts
-growth patterns are distinct for different plant species
where can you find meristem cells?
in and around the apexes in a plant
meristem cells may also divide to produce similar, undifferentiated cells called ________ cells. These cells may undergo differentiation in the future.
Parenchyma cells
parenchyma cells typically have ____ cell walls and may be involved with cell _____.
thin
storage.
how many cells within a plant will be parenchyma cells?
an incredible proportion of all cells in a plant will be parenchyma cells
what does a seedling produce?
a seedling will produce a root and a stem that will grow in length. they also develop root hairs that take up water from the ground
what is a cotyledon?
seed leaves, part of the embryo in the seed
what is the hypocotyl?
stem part of the embryo in the seedling below the cotyledons
what is the epicotyl?
the first true leaves, above the cotyledon
a seedling that only has 1 cotyledon is called a ______. a seedling that has 2 cotyledons is called a _______.
monocot
eudicot
how can you distinguish eudicots from monocots (4 ways)?
-number of cotyledons
-leaf vein patterns
-number of flower parts
-stem vascular bundle organization
the main veins in _____ leaves are parallel. the main veins in _____ leaves are net or grid like
monocots
eudicots
typically the petals in ______ are in groups of 4/5. typically the petals in ______ are in groups of 3.
eudicots.
monocots
there are ~50,000/60,000 species of ______ and ~200,0000 species of _______.
monocots.
eudicots
lilies, palms and grasses are examples of what?
monocots
in ______ the arrangement of vascular bundles in the stem will form a ring shape. in _____ the arrangement of vascular bundles in the stem will be scattered across the whole area.
eudicots.
monocots
what are the two modified protective structures built in the seedlings of grasses called?
coleoptile and coleorhiza
what is a coleoptile?
small, sheath like leaf that protects the true foliage leaves as they immerge through the soil
what is a coleorhiza?
root-like sheath that the 1st root will emerge through.
what is primary growth?
growth in length. these plants will never exhibit woody structures as that is secondary growth.
___ plants undergo primary growth, _____ and _____ only exhibit primary growth
all
annuals and perennials
what are 3 main advantages that being woody provides?
1) protection of at least part of the plant body from low temperature damage.
2) generation of a tall plant body leads to increased seed dispersal and competitive advantages.
3) a permanent plant structure upon which to produce leaves and reproductive structures
what is secondary growth?
growth in girth, wood is associated with growth in girth (width).
secondary growth is produced by ___ _____ occurring in the area between the xylem and the phloem, also referred to as the ______ _______.
cell division
vascular cambium
what are initial cells?
initial cells are meristematic cells that divide to produce either secondary xylem or secondary phloem.
what are rayes?
cells that develop to allow materials to move along the girth of the stem (in and out)
in order to grow in girth, what must happen?
vascular bundles must multiply
how do vascular bundles multiply?
1) primary vascular bundles produce a vascular cambium (meristematic cell region between xylem and phloem bundles).
2) vascular cambium makes a new ring of xylem and phloem
3) vascular cambium eventually produces a circular ring of dividing cells and grows circumferentially
4) vascular cambium generates a secondary ring of xylem and phloem.
as secondary growth proceeds, the _____ ______ moves outwards, leaving ______ _______ behind, and increases the circumference of the vascular cambium.
vascular cambium
secondary phloem
as the circumference expands, the stems ____ is pushed and the _____ is ruptured.
cortex
epidermis
as the circumference expands, a secondary protective tissue called ____ is produced
Periderm. periderm = bark = cork
usually by the stems ___ year of growth, a second cylindrical meristem called the ____ _____ is produced outside of the cortex and the secondary phloem
first.
cork cambium
what is the main job of cork cambium?
cork cambium’s job is to produce cork cells which are water and gas resistant which also replace the ruptured epidermis.
cork cells form the ____ ____
stem’s bark
draw the inside of a woody stem
refer to module 14 images
what are the advantages to being woody?
-protection from cold/winter damage or desiccation
-allows plant to grow taller and be much more competitive for sunlight resources and seed dispersal
what is a disadvantage to being woody?
it takes a lot of energy to grow wood and be tall
how is secondary growth in cacti the same compared to secondary growth in non cacti species?
the vascular bundles develop a vascular cambium and produce secondary xylem and phloem.
how does secondary growth in cacti differ from secondary growth in non-cacti species?
the vascular cambium does not form a large ring all the way around the stem and instead produces independent vascular bundles that form woody “ribs” (occurs in columnar and non columnar cacti)
can the ribs branch throughout the specimen?
yes, often times they will
the _____ lives for a very long time in cacti unlike in most plants.
epidermis
in cacti, a ___ _____ is produced but only on the oldest, most basal parts of the stem (base)
cork cambium.
at the ____, the cork on cacti may replace the ______, and appear to be wood-like.
base
epidermis
what is an advantage for cacti that are woody over non-woody cacti?
having wood supports the heavy cacti body and allows them to compete with tall trees and grow to be taller than they would otherwise be
does having a wood base impact a plants ability to conserve water?
nope
how are vascular cambium different from apical meristems?
vascular cambium forms secondary xylem and phloem and forms a cork cambium that allows for wood growth. apical meristems are simply undifferentiated cells that may undergo differentiation at any given point in time
