Midterm (Ch 1-5)

Question 1

Organizational effectiveness

Answer 1

An ideal state in which the organization:

Has a good fit with its external environment (open system)

Effectively transforms inputs to outputs (human capital)

Satisfies the needs of key stakeholders

Question 2

Organizations as Open Systems

Answer 2

Open systems: The view that
organizations depend on
the external environment for
resources, affect that environment through their output, and
consist of internal subsystems
that transform inputs to outputs.

Inputs –> Feedback —> Outputs

Organizations have numerous subsystems (departments, teams, technological processes, etc.) that transform the incoming resources
into outputs that are returned to the external environment.

INPUTS
*Raw materials
* Human resources
* Information
* Financial resources
* Equipment

OUTPUTS
* Products/services
* Shareholder dividends
* Community support
* Waste/pollution

Question 3

Human Capital as the Organization’s
Competitive Advantage

Answer 3

The most important ingredient in the organization’s process
of transforming inputs to outputs

Human capital is:
Essential for survival/success, difficult to find/copy/replace with technology
Human capital improves the organizational effectiveness:
- Directly improves individual behaviour and performance
- Performing diverse tasks in unfamiliar situations
- Company’s investment in employees motivates them

Question 4

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

Answer 4

Activities intended to benefit society and the environment beyond the firm’s immediate financial interests or legal obligation

Triple-bottom-line philosophy:

• Economic (aim to survive and be profitable in the marketplace)
• Society (intend to maintain or
  improve conditions for society)
• Environment

The emerging evidence is that companies with a positive CSR reputation tend to have better financial performance, more loyal employees, and better relations with customers, job applicants, and other stakeholders

Question 5

Organizational Behaviour Anchors (5)

Answer 5

Systematic research anchor:
A key feature of OB knowledge is that it should be based on systematic research:
forming research questions, systematically collecting data, and testing hypotheses against these data

Practical orientation anchor:
- Ensure that OB theories are useful in organizations.
- The true “impact” of an OB theory is how well it finds its way into organizational life and becomes a valuable asset for improving the organization’s effectiveness.

Multidisciplinary anchor:
the field should welcome theories and knowledge from disciplines other than its own

Contingency anchor:
- The effect of one variable on another variable often
depends on the characteristics of the situation or people involved
- A single outcome or solution rarely exists; a particular action may have different consequences under different conditions (e.g. the success of remote work depends on specific characteristics of
the employee, job, and organization)

Multiple levels of analysis anchor:
- Organizational behaviour recognizes that what goes on in organizations can be placed into three levels of analysis: individual, team (including interpersonal), and organization

Question 6

Inclusive Workplace: Surface-level diversity

Answer 6

The observable demographic or
physiological differences in
people, such as their race,
ethnicity, gender, age, and
physical disabilities.

Question 7

Inclusive Workplace: Deep-level diversity

Answer 7

Differences in the psychological characteristics of employees, including personalities,
beliefs, values, and attitudes.

Question 8

Workplace Diversity Benefits and Challenges

Answer 8

Benefits of diversity:
- Better decisions, employee attitudes, team performance
- More team creativity, better decisions in complex situations
- Better representation of community needs
- Moral/legal imperative (A moral imperative is a strongly-felt principle that compels that person to act)

Challenges of Diversity:
- Team take longer to perform effectively together (communication problems)
- Higher dysfunctional conflict (behaviour such as aggression, hostility, or lack of respect toward others),
- Lower info sharing and morale

Question 9

Work-Life Integration

Answer 9

• The degree to which individuals effectively participate in their diverse responsibilities, both at work and in their personal lives, while experiencing minimal conflict between these different life domains.
• This phrase has replaced
  work–life balance, which
  incorrectly implies that
  work and non-work roles
  are completely separate and opposing partitions
• PROBLEM: work-life conflict - the heavy demands of one role deplete personal resources, which starve other roles.

Question 10

Practicing work-life integration

Answer 10

• Literally integrate two
  or more roles (e.g. conduct
  meetings during an exercise or walk, On-site child care)
• Flexible work scheduling
• Make sure your job, family life, sports activities, are roughly consistent with your personality and values
• Boundary management (disconnecting from work)

Question 11

Remote Work Benefits and Risks

Answer 11

Benefits:
- Better work-life integration
- Valued job benefit, less turnover (leaving job)
- Higher productivity
- Better for environment
- Lower corporate costs

Disadvantages:
- More social isolation
- Less informal communication
- Lower team cohesion
- Weaker organizational culture

Question 12

Employment Relationships (3) & their consequences

Answer 12

Direct employment:
- Employee working directly with employer
- This relationship
assumes continuous employment (lifetime employment, in
rare cases), usually with expectations of career advancement and the organization’s investment in the employee’s
skills
Adv: higher work quality, innovation, and agility
Disadv: lower job satisfaction, commitment when working with indirect workers

Indirect employment:
- Outsourced or agency work (sometimes cheap labour in 3rd world countries)
Disadv: Lower job satisfaction than other employment types

Contract employment:
- “Self-employed”, “Freelancer”
- A self-employed contractor an
independent organization that provides services to a client
organization.

indirect employment and self-employed contract work are the fastest growing work relationships.

Teams with direct and indirect workers:
- Weaker social networks, less information sharing

Question 13

MARS Model: Employee Motivation (3 internal forces)

Answer 13

The 3 Internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behaviour:

1) Direction:
- The path along which people steer their effort.
- In other words, motivation is goal-directed, not random.
- People have choices about what they are trying to achieve and at what level of quality, quantity, and so forth.
E.g. They are motivated to arrive at work on time, finish a project
a few hours early, or aim for many other targets.

2) Intensity:
- The amount of effort allocated to the goal.
- How much people push themselves to complete a task.
e.g. Two employees might be motivated to finish their project within the next few hours (direction), but only one of them puts forth enough effort (intensity) to achieve this goal.

3) Persistence:
- The length of time that the individual continues to exert effort
toward an objective.
- Employees sustain their effort until they reach their goal or give up beforehand.

To help remember these three elements of motivation,
consider the metaphor of driving a car in which the thrust of
the engine is your effort. Direction refers to where you steer
the car, intensity is how much you put your foot down on the
gas pedal, and persistence is for how long you drive toward
your destination.

Question 14

MARS Model: Employee Ability

Answer 14

Natural aptitudes (the natural talents that help employees
learn specific tasks more quickly and perform them better) and learned capabilities (the skills and knowledge that people acquire, such as through training, practice, and other forms of learning) required to successfully complete a task

Question 15

MARS Model: Employee Ability (Person-job matching: 3 strategies)

Answer 15

Person-job matching:
- The challenge to match a person’s abilities with the job’s requirements because a good match tends to increase employee performance and well-being.

3 Strategies:

1) Selecting
- Select applicants who already demonstrate the required abilities
- Companies ask applicants to perform work samples, provide references for checking their past performance, and complete various selection tests

2) Developing
- Train employees who lack specific knowledge or skills needed for the job

3) Redesigning
- Re-design the job so that employees are given tasks only within their current abilities.
- E.g. a complex task might
be simplified—some aspects of the work are transferred to others—so a new employee is only assigned tasks that they are currently able to perform.
- As the employee becomes more competent at these tasks, other tasks are added back into the job.

Question 16

MARS Model: Employee Role Perceptions Definition

Answer 16

• The degree to which a person
  understands the job duties
  assigned to or expected
  of them

Question 17

MARS Model: Employee Role Perceptions (Definition and 3 forms of role clarity)

Answer 17

Role perceptions: the degree to which a person understands the job duties assigned to or expected
of them

Forms of Role Clarity:

1) Clear duties:
- Employees understanding the specific duties or consequences for which they are accountable
- Employees are occasionally evaluated on job duties they were never told was within their zone of
responsibility

2) Clear task priority
- Employees understanding the priority of their various tasks and performance expectations (quantity vs quality)
- Role clarity in the form of task priorities also exists in the dilemma of allocating personal time and resources (e.g. how much time managers should devote to coaching employees versus meeting with clients)

3) Preferred procedures
- Understanding the preferred behaviours or procedures for accomplishing tasks.
- Role ambiguity exists
when an employee knows two or three ways to perform a task, but misunderstands which of these the company prefers

Question 18

MARS Model: Employee Role Perceptions (Consequences of clear vs ambiguous role perceptions)

Answer 18

Clear role perceptions:
- Employees perform work more accurately and efficiently
- Motivates employees because they
have a higher belief that their effort will produce the expected
outcomes.
- Essential for coordination with co-workers and other stakeholders

Ambiguous role perceptions:
- Employees waste considerable
time and energy by performing the wrong tasks or the right
tasks in the wrong way

Question 19

MARS Model: Situational Factors (Constraints/facilitators & Cues)

Answer 19

Situational Factors:
- Conditions beyond people’s short-term control that constrain or facilitate behaviour

Constraints/facilitators:
- Employees who are motivated, skilled, and know their role
obligations will nevertheless perform poorly if they lack time,
budget, physical work facilities, and other resources.

Cues:
The work environment provides cues to guide and motivate people. E.g. companies install
barriers and warning signs in dangerous areas (cue employees to
avoid the nearby hazards)

Question 20

Types of Individual Behaviours (2)

Answer 20

1) Task Performance:
- Voluntary goal-directed behaviours
- 3 types: Proficient, adaptive, proactive

2) Organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs):
- Various forms of cooperation and
helpfulness to others that sup-
port the organization’s social
and psychological context.
- Some OCBs are directed toward
individuals (e.g. assisting co-workers with their work problems)
- Other OCBs represent cooperation and helpfulness toward
the organization (e.g. the company’s public image)
- Some organizational citizenship behaviours are discretionary (employees don’t have to perform them), other OCBs are job requirements even if they aren’t explicitly stated in job descriptions.

NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES of performing OCBs:
- They take time and energy away from performing tasks, so employees who give more attention to OCBs risk lower career success in companies that reward task performance.
- Employees who frequently perform OCBs tend to have higher work–family conflict because of the
amount of time required for these activities

Question 21

Presenteeism

Answer 21

• Showing up for work when unwell, injured, preoccupied by personal problems, or faced with dangerous conditions getting to
  work
• Employees who show up for work when they should be absent tend to be less productive and may reduce the productivity of co-workers.
• They may also worsen their own health and spread disease to co-workers.
• More common among employees with low
  job security (such as new and temporary staff), employees who
  lack sick leave pay or similar financial buffers, and those whose
  absence would immediately affect many people.

Question 22

Five-Factor (CANOE) Personality and Individual Behaviour (Type of performance –> Relevant Personality Dimension)

Answer 22

Proficient task performance –> Conscientiousness, extraversion

Adaptive task performance –> emotional stability, extraversion (assertiveness), openness to experience

Proactive task performance –>
extraversion (assertiveness), openness to experience

Organizational citizenship (cooperative,
sensitive, flexible, and supportive) –> Conscientiousness, Agreeableness

Counterproductive work behaviours –> Lower Conscientiousness, agreeableness = more CWB,

Question 23

CANOE and Work Performance Predictors

Answer 23

• Effective leaders, salespeople are somewhat more extraverted
• Openness to experience may predict a creative work performance
• Conscientiousness is a weak predictor of adaptive, proactive performance
• Agreeableness:
  -Predicts team member, customer service performance
  
  • Weak predictor of proficient, proactive performance

Question 24

Five Factor Model Issues (4)

Answer 24

1) Higher big five scores aren’t always better
E.g. Employees with moderate extraversion perform
better in sales jobs than those with high or low extraversion.

2) Specific traits may predict better than their overall Big Five factor:
E.g. The specific extra-
version traits of assertiveness and positive emotionality predict proficient task performance better than the overall extraversion factor.

3) Personality isn’t static
- Personality can shift when the individual’s environment changes
significantly over a long time, such as when moving to a different culture or working in a job for many years.

4) The five-factor model doesn’t cover all personality concepts
E.g. needs and motives

Question 25

The Dark Triad

Answer 25

Machiavellianism
- Strong motivation to get what one wants at the expense of others
- Believe that deceit is natural and acceptable to achieve goals
- Take pleasure in misleading, outwitting, controlling others
- Seldom empathize with or trust coworkers

Narcissism
- Obsessive belief in one’s own superiority, entitlement
- Excessive need for attention
- Intensely envious

Psychopathy
- Social predators: ruthlessly dominate and manipulate others
- Mask of psychopathy: superficial charm, but selfish self-promoters
- Engage in antisocial, impulsive, and often fraudulent thrill-seeking behaviour

Question 26

Dark Triad and Workplace Behaviour (Consequences/Benefits)

Answer 26

The dark triad
predicts counterproductive work behaviours, but
not as well as do the specific Big Five factors of low agreeableness and low conscientiousness.

Consequences:
Dark triad traits predict:
- Bullying and other forms of workplace aggression
- Serious white-collar crime behaviour
- Decisions that produce poorer absolute and risk adjusted investment return
- Those with high
psychopathy take excessive risks due to their overconfidence
and disregard for consequences.

Benefits:
- They have a manipulative political skill, which some supervisors rate favourably in employee performance.
- Being manipulative also occasionally helps employees move
into more powerful positions in informal employee networks.

Question 27

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI)

Answer 27

Is an instrument designed to measure the elements of Jungian personality theory, particularly preferences regarding perceiving
and judging information.

THE PERCEIVING FUNCTION—how people prefer to gather information—occurs through two competing orientations: sensing (S) and intuition (N):
- Sensing:
involves perceiving information directly through the five
senses; it relies on an organized structure to acquire factual and preferably quantitative details.
- Intuition:
Relies more on insight and subjective experience to see relationships
among variables. Sensing types focus on the here and now,
whereas intuitive types focus more on future possibilities.

THE JUDGING FUNCTION—how
people prefer making decisions based on what they have
perceived—consists of two competing processes: thinking
(T) and feeling (F). People with a thinking orientation rely
on rational cause–effect logic and systematic data collection to make decisions.

Question 28

MBTI Benefits and Drawbacks

Answer 28

Benefits:
- MBTI takes a neutral or balanced
approach by recognizing both the strengths and limitations of each personality type in different situations.
- Improves self-awareness and mutual understanding
- It’s the most widely
studied measure of cognitive style in management research
- The most popular personality test for career counselling and executive coaching

Drawbacks:
- Usually a poor
predictor of job performance and
- Is generally not recommended for employment selection or promotion decisions.
- MBTI can potentially identify employees who prefer face-to-face versus remote teamwork, but it does not predict how well a team
develops.
- Has questionable value in predicting leadership effectiveness.

Question 29

Jungian & Myers-Briggs Types

Answer 29

GETTING ENERGY:

Extraversion (E)
*Talkative
*Externally-focused
*Assertive

Introversion (I)
* Quiet
* Internally- focused
* Abstract

PERCEIVING INFORMATION:

Sensing (S)
*Concrete
*Realistic
*Practical

Intuitive (N)
* Imaginative
* Future-focused
* Abstract

MAKING DECISIONS:

Thinking (T)
* Logical
*Objective
* Impersonal

Feeling (F)
*Empathetic
*Caring
*Emotion-focused

ORIENTING TO THE EXTERNAL WORLD:

Judging (J)
*Organized
*Schedule-oriented
*Closure-focused

Perceiving (P)
* Spontaneous
* Adaptable
* Opportunity-focused

Question 30

Values in the Workplace & Values System Definition

Answer 30

Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences:
* Define right/wrong, good/bad – what we “ought” to do.
* Direct our motivation, potentially decisions/behaviour.

Values system – a person’s hierarchy of values.

Compared with personality, values are:
* Evaluative (not descriptive).
* May conflict strongly with each other.
* Affected more by nurture than nature.

Question 31

Schwartz’s Values Model

Answer 31

57 values clustered into 10
categories (The 10 categories include universal-
ism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, security, power,
achievement, hedonism, stimulation, and self-direction) further clustered
into four quadrants:

• Openness to change
• motivated to pursue innovative
  ways
• Conservation
• motivated to preserve the
  status quo
• Self-enhancement
• motivated by self-interest
• Self-transcendence
• motivated to promote welfare
  of others and nature

Question 32

How Values Influence Decisions and Behaviour

Answer 32

1. Values affect the relative
   attractiveness of choices:
   - Our decisions are guided by personal values because those values generate positive or negative feelings (valences) toward
   the available choices.
   - We experience more positive feelings toward choices that are aligned with our values
   and negative feelings toward alternatives that are contrary to our values.
2. Values frame
   our perceptions of reality:
   - We are constantly bombarded with stimuli from our surroundings.
   - Personal values influence whether we notice something as well as how we interpret it
   - Our decisions and actions are affected by how we perceive
   those situations.
3. Values motivate us to act
   consistently with self-concept and public image:
   - If achievement is a key feature of your self-view and public image,
   then you are motivated to act in ways that are consistent
   with that value.
   - The more clearly a behaviour is aligned with a specific value that identifies us, the more motivated we are to engage in that behaviour.

Question 33

Values Congruence and its Importance

Answer 33

Similarity of a person’s values hierarchy to another source.

Importance of values congruence:
* Team values congruence—higher team cohesion and
performance.
* Person–organization values congruence—higher job
satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational citizenship, lower
stress and turnover.

Question 34

Ethical Values and Behaviour (4 principles)

Answer 34

Ethics: study of moral principles and values, whether actions are right or wrong, outcomes are good or bad.

Four ethical principles:

1. Utilitarianism.
   - Greatest good for the greatest number.
   - We should choose the option that provides the highest degree of satisfaction to those affected
   - One
   problem is that utilitarianism requires a cost–benefit
   analysis, yet many outcomes aren’t measurable.
2. Individual rights.
   - Everyone has the same natural rights
   - The individual rights
   principle extends beyond legal rights to human rights
   that everyone is granted as a moral norm of society.
   - One problem with this principle is that some individual rights
   may conflict with others.
3. Distributive justice.
   - Benefits and burdens should be the same or proportional.
   - The main problem with
   the distributive justice principle is that it is difficult to
   agree on who is “similar” and what factors are relevant.
4. Ethic of care.
   - Moral obligation to help others.
   - Ethic of care includes being attentive to others’ needs, using one’s abilities to give care to others, and being responsive to (having empathy for) the person receiving
   care.

Question 35

Moral Intensity and Ethical Conduct

Answer 35

The degree that an issue demands the application of ethical principles.

Moral intensity higher when:
* Decision has substantially good or bad consequences.
* High agreement among others that outcomes are good-bad
(not diverse beliefs).
* High probability that good-bad outcomes will occur from the
decision.
* Many people will be affected by the decision.

Question 36

Moral Sensitivity and Ethical Conduct

Answer 36

A person’s ability to detect a moral dilemma and
estimate its relative importance.
Moral sensitivity is higher in people with:
* Expertise/knowledge of prescriptive norms and rules.
* Past experience with specific moral dilemmas.
* More empathy.
* A self-view as an ethical person.
* Mindfulness (A person’s
receptive and impartial attention to and awareness of the
present situation as well as to
one’s own thoughts and emotions in that moment.)

Question 37

Supporting Ethical Behaviour

Answer 37

• Corporate code of ethics
• Educate and test employee’s ethical knowledge (Many large firms have annual quizzes)
• Systems for communicating/investigating wrongdoing
• Ethical culture and ethical leadership

Question 38

Values Across Cultures: Individualism

Answer 38

The degree to which
people value personal
freedom, self-sufficiency,
control over themselves,
being appreciated for
unique qualities

High: Canada, United States, Chile, South Africa
Medium: Japan, Denmark
Low: Taiwan, Venezuela

Question 39

Values Across Cultures: Collectivism

Answer 39

The degree to which
people value their group
membership and
harmonious relationships
within the group

High: Israel, Taiwan
Medium: India, Denmark
Low: Canada, United States, Germany, Japan

Question 40

Values Across Cultures: Power Distance

Answer 40

High power distance
* Value obedience to authority
* Comfortable receiving
commands from superiors
* Prefer formal rules and
authority to resolve conflicts

Low power distance
* Expect relatively equal power
sharing
* View relationship with boss as
interdependence, not
dependence

High: India, Malaysia
Medium: Canada, United
States, Japan
Low: Denmark, Israel

Question 41

Values Across Cultures: Uncertainty Avoidance

Answer 41

High uncertainty avoidance
* Feel threatened by
ambiguity and uncertainty
* Value structured situations
and direct communication

Low uncertainty
avoidance
* Tolerate ambiguity and
uncertainty

High: Belgium, Greece
Medium: Canada, United
States, Norway
Low: Denmark, Singapore

Question 42

Values Across Cultures: Achievement-Nurturing

Answer 42

High achievement orientation
* Assertiveness
* Competitiveness
* Materialism

High nurturing orientation
* Value relationships
* Focus on human interaction

High: Austria, Japan
Medium: Canada, United
States, Brazil
Low: Sweden, Netherlands

Question 43

Cultural Diversity within Canada

Answer 43

Deep-level diversity across ethnic and regional groups
Compared to Francophones tend to:
* Have less deference to authority
* less accepting of Canada’s military activities abroad
*More tolerance and morally permissive views regarding marriage, sexual activity, and non-married parenthood

Indigenous Canadians
* High collectivism
* Low power distance: Indigenous communities place a high priority on consensus and thereby reduce the
leader’s control over group decisions.
* Non-interference: displeasure is not typically displayed by
explicit and open disapproval of another’s actions.
* Natural time orientation: tend to view time as less structured than in European cultures

Personal values/traits vary across Canadian regions

Regional variations seem to be caused by:
* regional institutions (local government, education, religions)
* regional migration

Question 44

Canadian vs American Values

Answer 44

Canadians tend to:
- Have higher moral permissiveness
- Encourage more collective rights
- Have less affiliation with religious
institutions, separation from policy
- Have less deference (humble submission and respect) to patriarchal
authority

Americans tend to:
- Have lower moral permissiveness
Encourage more individual rights
- Have more affiliation with religious
institutions, involvement in policy
- Have more deference to patriarchal authority

Question 45

Self-Concept Defined

Answer 45

Our self-beliefs and self-
evaluations.

We compare situations with
our current (perceived self)
and desired (ideal self).

Three levels of self-concept:
individual, relational,
collective.

Question 46

Self-Concept Model: Four Selves

Answer 46

Social self, self-enhancement, self-evaluation, self-verification

Question 47

Self-Concept Characteristics (3 Cs)

Answer 47

Complexity
* Number of distinct/important identities people perceive about
themselves.
* People have multiple self-concepts.
- People are generally motivated to increase their complexity (called
self-expansion) as they seek out new opportunities and social
connections.
* Higher complexity when selves are separate (not similar).
- Complexity is higher when the multiple identities
have a low correlation with each other, such as when they
apply to fairly distinct spheres of life

Consistency
* Multiple selves require similar personality attributes.
* Self-views are compatible with actual attributes.
* High consistency exists when the individual’s personal attributes are compatible with their various self-
views, and when those self-views are compatible with each
other.
* Low consistency occurs when some self-views require
personal attributes that conflict with attributes required for
other self-views

Clarity.
* Self-concept is clear, confidently defined, and stable.
* Clarity increases with age and high consistency.

Question 48

Outcomes of Self-Concept Characteristics

Answer 48

People have better well-being with:
* Multiple selves (complexity).
* High-consistency selves.
* Well-established selves (clarity).

Effects on individual behaviour and performance:
* High self-concept complexity – more adaptive, more diverse
networks, more stressful, more resources needed to maintain
several identities.
* Less complex selves – more investment in fewer roles, which
may lead to higher performance.
* High self-concept clarity – better performance, leadership,
career development, less threatened by conflict.
* But very high clarity may cause role inflexibility.

Question 49

Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement

Answer 49

Drive to promote and protect a positive self-view.
* Competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued.
* Evident in common and important situations.

Self-enhancement outcomes.
* Better mental and physical health.
* Higher motivation due to “can-do” beliefs.
* Riskier decisions, inflated perceived personal causation,
slower to recognize mistakes.

Question 50

Self-Concept: Self-Verification

Answer 50

Motivation to confirm and maintain our self-concept:
Stabilizes our self-concept.
* We communicate self-concept to others.
* We seek confirming feedback.

Self-verification outcomes:
* Affects perceptions – selective attention.
* Dismiss feedback contrary to self-concept.
* Motivated to interact with those who affirm our self-view.

Question 51

Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation

Answer 51

Self-esteem.
* Extent to which people like, respect, and are satisfied with
themselves.
* High self-esteem: less influenced by others, more persistent,
more logical thinking.

Self-efficacy.
* Belief that we can successfully perform a task (MARS factors).
* General self-efficacy, “can-do” belief across situations.

Locus of control.
* General belief about personal control over life events.
* Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control.

Question 52

Self-Concept: Social Self

Answer 52

Opposing motives:
* Need to be distinctive and unique (personal identity)
* Need for inclusion and assimilation with others (social identity).

Social identity theory
- We define ourselves by groups we are easily identified with,
that have high status, and our minority status in a situation
- The group’s status is another important social identity
factor because association with the group makes us feel better
about ourselves (i.e., self-enhancement).

Question 53

Perception and Selective Attention + Biases

Answer 53

Perception: the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us.

Selective attention: selecting versus ignoring sensory information.

• Affected by characteristics of perceiver and object perceived.
• Emotional markers are assigned to selected information.

Selective attention biases.
* Assumptions and expectations.
* Confirmation bias: The process of screening out information that is contrary to our values and assumptions, and to more readily accept confirming information.

Question 54

Perceptual Organization and Interpretation

Answer 54

Perceptual grouping processes reduce information volume and complexity.

Categorical thinking: organizing people or things into preconceived
categories that are stored
in our long-term memory.

Perceptual grouping principles:
* Similarity or proximity.
* Closure: filling in missing pieces.
* Perceiving patterns/trends

Interpreting incoming information:
* Emotional markers automatically evaluate information.

Question 55

Mental Models in Perceptions

Answer 55

Knowledge structures that we develop to describe,
explain, and predict the world around us.

• Visual: image road maps.
• Relational: cause–effect (e.g. what happens when we submit an assignment late.
• Important for sense-making.
  Problem: Mental models make it difficult to see the
  world in different ways.
• Need to constantly question our mental models and be more aware of our assumptions, which are often based on mental models

Question 56

Stereotyping and Why People do it

Answer 56

Assigning traits to people based on their membership
in social categories.
* Kernels of truth, but embellished, distorted, supplemented.

Why people stereotype:
* Categorical thinking:By viewing someone (including yourself)
as a Nova Scotian, for example, you remove that person’s individuality and, instead, see them as a prototypical representative of the group called Nova Scotians.
* Fulfills drive to comprehend and predict others’ behaviour.
* Supports self-enhancement and social identity.

Question 57

Explanation for Stereotyping

Answer 57

Social identity and self-enhancement reinforce
stereotyping through:
* Categorization: categorize people into groups.
* Homogenization: assign similar traits within a group; different
traits to other groups.
* Differentiation: assign more favourable attributes to our
groups; less favourable to other groups.

Question 58

Problems with Stereotyping

Answer 58

Problems with stereotyping:
* Inaccurate description of most members.
* Stereotype threat: An
individual’s concern about
confirming a negative stereotype about their group.
* Foundation of systemic and intentional discrimination.

Overcoming stereotype biases:
* Difficult to prevent stereotype activation.
* Possible to minimize stereotype application.

Question 59

Attribution Theory

Answer 59

The perceptual process of deciding whether an observed behaviour or event is caused mainly by
internal or external factors.

Internal Attribution:
* Perceiving that behaviour/event is caused mainly by the
person.

External Attribution:
* Perceiving that behaviour/event is caused mainly by factors beyond the person’s control.

Question 60

Attribution Rules

Answer 60

People rely on the three attribution rules—CONSISTENCY, DISTINCTIVENESS, CONSENSUS—to decide whether another
individual’s behaviour and performance are caused mainly
by personal characteristics or by situational influences

To help explain how these three attribution rules operate, imagine a situation in which an employee is
making poor-quality products on a particular machine.

We would probably conclude that the employee lacks skill or motivation (an internal attribution) if the employee consistently makes poor-quality products on this machine (high consistency), the employee makes poor-quality products on other machines (low distinctiveness), and other employees make good-quality products on this machine (low consensus).

In contrast, we would believe something is wrong with the
machine (an external attribution) if the employee consistently
makes poor-quality products on this machine (high consistency), the employee makes good-quality products on other machines (high distinctiveness), and other employees make
poor-quality products on this machine (high consensus).

Question 61

Attribution Outcomes and Errors

Answer 61

Importance of the attribution process:
* Improves our mental model of causation.
* We respond differently to attributions of our own behaviour
and performance.

Self-serving bias:
* Attributing our failures to external causes, our successes to
internal causes.
* Due to self-enhancement process ( the tendency to attribute positive qualities to one’s self and take credit for one’s successes)

Fundamental attribution error (correspondence bias):
* Tendency to overemphasize internal causes of others’ actions.
* Difficult to see external causes of other’s’ behaviour.
* Fairly modest error effect ( the impact of errors or mistakes in various contexts, such as research, data analysis, decision-making, or software development)

Question 62

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and Cycle

Answer 62

Self-fulfilling prophecy:
The perceptual process in which
our expectations about
another person cause that
person to act more consistently with those expectations

Self-fulfilling prophecy cycle:
1. Supervisor forms
expectations about the
employee
2. Supervisor’s
expectations affect
their behaviour
toward the employee
3. Supervisor’s behaviour
affects the employee’s ability and
motivation (self-confidence)
4. Employee’s behaviour
becomes more consistent
with the supervisor’s initial
expectations

Question 63

Contingencies of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Answer 63

Self-fulfilling prophecy effect is strongest:
* At the beginning of the relationship.
* When several people hold same expectations.
* When employee has low achievement.

• Leaders need to develop and maintain a positive, yet
  realistic, expectation toward all employees.

Minimizing self-fulfilling prophecy error:
* Awareness has minimal effect on reducing this bias.
* Supporting/learning organizational culture.
* Hiring supervisors who are inherently optimistic toward staff.

Question 64

Other Perceptual Effects

Answer 64

Halo effect:
* General impression of person from one trait affects perception
of person’s other traits.

False-consensus effect:
* Overestimate extent that others share our beliefs or traits.

Recency effect:
* Most recent information dominates our perceptions.

Primacy effect:
* Quickly form opinion of others based on first information
received about them

Question 65

Improving Perceptions

Answer 65

Awareness of perceptual biases.
* Problems: reinforces stereotypes, limited effect on prejudice.

Improving self-awareness.
* Implicit association test and Johari Window (A model of
self-awareness and mutual
understanding with others
that advocates disclosure and
feedback to increase our open
area and reduce the blind, hidden, and unknown areas)
* Problems: (a) difficult to avoid implicit bias activation, (b) Perceptual bias self-awareness
can cause people to become more sensitized and self-conscious
when interacting with people who are the target
of that bias.

Meaningful interaction.
* People work together on valued activities.
* Based on contact hypothesis.
- Interaction reduces perceptual bias of others.
* Improves empathy.
- Understanding and being sensitive to the feelings, thoughts, and
situations of others.

Question 66

Global Mindset Abilities

Answer 66

Global mindset refers to an individual’s ability to perceive, know about, and process information across cultures.

1. Adopting a global perspective.
   - A global mindset increases as
   the individual acquires
   more of a global than
   a local frame
   of reference about their
   business and its environment.
2. Empathizing and acting effectively across cultures
   Understanding the perceptions and emotions of co-workers from other cultures in various situations.
3. Processing complex information about novel environments.
   - This calls for a capacity to cognitively receive and analyze large volumes of information in these new and diverse situations.
4. Developing new multilevel mental models
   - the capacity to quickly develop useful
   mental models of situations, particularly at both a local
   and global level of analysis.

Question 67

Developing a Global Mindset

Answer 67

Begins with self-awareness.

Compare own mental models with those of people from other cultures/regions.

Develop better knowledge of people and cultures,preferably through immersion.

Question 68

Emotions Defined

Answer 68

Psychological, behavioural,
and physiological episodes
that create a state of
readiness.
* Emotions are experiences
-They represent changes in
our physiological state (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate),
psychological state (e.g., thought process), and behaviour
(e.g., facial expression)
* Brief episodes
* Subtle, mostly non conscious
* Emotions motivate, put us in a state of readiness
* Emotions are directed toward someone or something.
* This differs from moods, which are not directed toward anything in particular and tend to be longer term background emotional states.

Question 69

Attitudes versus Emotions

Answer 69

Attitudes:
* Cluster of beliefs, feelings,
behavioural intentions.
* Judgments with conscious
reasoning.
* More stable over time.

Emotions:
* Experiences related to
attitude object.
* Operate as events, often
non-conscious.
* Brief experiences.

Question 70

Attitude-Behaviour Contingencies

Answer 70

Beliefs-Feelings Contingencies:
* Two people have the same belief but different valences about
that belief.

Feelings-Behavioural Intentions Contingencies:
* Two people have the same feelings but form different behavioural intentions due to past experience, personality.

Behavioural Intentions-Behaviour Contingencies:
* Two people have same behavioural intentions, but different
situation or skills enables only one of them to act.

Question 71

How Emotions Influence Attitudes and Behaviour

Answer 71

• Emotional markers (Our brain
  tags incoming sensory information
  based on a quick and imprecise evaluation of whether that
  information supports or threatens our innate drives) attach to incoming sensory information.
• Emotional experiences occur when information is first received and later thinking about that information.
• Feelings and beliefs are influenced by cumulative emotional episodes.
  Emotions influence our cognitive thinking about the attitude object.
• We “listen in” on our emotions.
  Emotions also directly affect behaviour.

Question 72

Cognitive Dissonance

Answer 72

Cognitive Dissonance:
Emotional response to incongruent beliefs, feelings, and behaviour.
* Violates image of being rational.
* Emotion motivates consistency.

• Difficult to reduce dissonance by reversing decisions.
• Reduce cognitive dissonance by changing beliefs and feelings.
  1. Amplify or discover additional positive features of the
  selected alternative.
  2. Amplify or discover additional problems or weaknesses
  with the alternatives not chosen.
  3. Compensate the dissonant decision by recognizing
  previous consonant.

Question 73

Emotional Labour

Answer 73

Effort, planning and control to express organizationally
desired emotions

Higher in jobs requiring:
* Frequent/lengthy emotion display
* Variety of emotions display
* Intense emotions display

Emotion display norms vary across cultures
* Expressed emotions discouraged: Ethiopia, Japan
* Expressed emotions allowed/expected : Kuwait, Spain

Question 74

Emotion Display Norms Across Cultures

Answer 74

Cultural variations in
emotional display norms:
* Some countries/cultures
strongly discourage emotional
- Instead, people are expected to be subdued, have relatively monotonic voice intonation, and avoid physical movement and touching that display emotions.
expression. (several countries in Asia and Africa)
- In contrast, several Latin and Middle Eastern cultures allow or encourage more vivid display of
emotions and expect people to act more consistently with their true emotions.
* Some countries/cultures
encourage open display of
one’s true emotions.

Question 75

Strategies for Displaying Expected Emotions (2)

Answer 75

1. Consciously engage in verbal and nonverbal behaviours that represent the expected emotions.
   - Surface acting is faking the expected emotions.
   - Surface acting is stressful and difficult.
2. Regulate actual emotions (basis of deep acting).
   - Change the situation.
   - Modify the situation.
   - Suppress or amplify emotions.
   - Shift attention.
   - Re frame the situation.

Question 76

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

Answer 76

• A set of abilities to perceive and
  express emotion, assimilate
  emotion in thought, under stand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in
  oneself and others.

Question 77

EI Dimensions (4)

Answer 77

• Awareness of our own emotions: This is the ability to perceive and understand the meaning of our own emotions.
  
  • People with higher emotional intelligence have better awareness of their emotions and are better able to make sense of them.
• Management of our own emotions:
• We suppress disruptive impulses and try not to feel angry or frustrated when events go against us
• Management of our own emotions involves deep acting and the associated emotion regulation practices described earlier.
• Awareness of others’ emotions:
• The ability to perceive and understand the emotions of
  other people.
• It relates to empathy—having an understanding of and sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and
  situations of others
• Management of others’ emotions. - managing other people’s emotions. - It includes consoling people who feel sad, emotionally inspiring
  team members to complete a class project on time, dissipating co-worker stress and other dysfunctional
  emotions that they experience.

Question 78

Emotional Intelligence Outcomes and Development

Answer 78

Emotional Intelligence leads to better:
* teamwork.
* emotional labour performance.
* leadership.
* decisions involving others.
* creativity mindset.

Developing emotional intelligence
* Training, coaching, practice and feedback.
* Emotional intelligence increases with age.

Question 79

EVLN: Responses to Dissatisfaction

Answer 79

Exit
* Leaving the situation.
* Quitting, transferring, being absent.
* Specific “shock events” can quickly energize employees to think about and engage in exit behaviour.

Voice
* Changing the situation.
* Problem solving, complaining.
* Can be a constructive response, such as recommending ways for
management to improve the situation, or it can be more
confrontational, such as filing formal grievances or forming a coalition to oppose a decision.
* In the extreme,
some employees might engage in counterproductive
behaviours to get attention and force changes in the
organization

Loyalty
* Patiently waiting for the situation to improve

Neglect
* Reducing work effort/quality.
* Increasing absenteeism and lateness.

Question 80

Job Satisfaction and Performance

Answer 80

• Happy workers are
  somewhat more
  productive workers

Satisfaction-performance
relationship isn’t stronger
because:
* General attitudes are poor
predictors of specific
behaviours
* Low employee control over
performance
* Reverse causation
(performance causes
satisfaction), but performance
often isn’t rewarded.

Question 81

Service Profit Chain Model

Answer 81

Job satisfaction increases customer
satisfaction and profitability because:
1. Employee emotions affect customer emotions.
2. Experienced (low turnover)
employees provide better service.

Question 82

Organizational Commitment (3 types)

Answer 82

Affective commitment:
* Emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in an organization.
* Lower turnover, higher motivation and organizational citizenship.

Continuance commitment:
* Calculative attachment.
* Leaving is difficult: (a) due to social/economic loss or (b) lack of
alternative employment.
* Lower turnover, performance, organizational citizenship,
cooperation.

Normative commitment:
* Felt obligation or moral duty to the organization.
* Applies norm of reciprocity (a natural human motivation to support, contribute,
and otherwise “pay back”
the organization because
it has invested in and supported the employee)

Question 83

Building Affective Commitment

Answer 83

Justice and support:
* Support organizational justice and employee well-being.

Shared values.
* Employees believe their values are congruent with firm’s values.

Trust:
* Positive expectations toward another person in situations involving risk.
* Employees trust management when management trusts employees.

Organizational comprehension.
* How well employees understand the organization.
* Need a clear mental model of organization to identify with it.

Employee involvement.
* Psychological ownership of and social identity with the company

Question 84

What Is Stress?

Answer 84

• An Adaptive response to situations perceived as challenging or threatening to well-being.
• Prepares us to adapt to hostile environmental conditions.

EUSTRESS (a necessary part
of life because it activates and motivates people to achieve
goals, change their environments, and succeed in life’s challenges
VERSUS
DISTRESS (the degree of physiological, psychological, and
behavioural deviation from healthy functioning).

Question 85

Workplace Stressors

Answer 85

Four most common workplace stressors:

1. Organizational constraints
   * This stressor includes lack of equipment, supplies, budget funding, co-worker support, information, and other resources
   necessary to complete the required work.
   * Interferes with performance, lack of control
2. Interpersonal conflict
   * Interferes with goals, other’s behaviour threatening
   * Includes psychological and sexual harassment
3. Work overload
   * More hours, intensive work
   * Work overload is evident when employees consume more
   of their personal time to get the job done.
4. Low task control
   * Workplace stress is higher when employees lack control over how and when they perform their tasks as well as over
   the pace of work activity.

Question 86

Individual Differences in Stress

Answer 86

People experience less stress and/or less negative
stress outcomes when they have:

1. Better physical health – exercise, lifestyle
2. Appropriate stress coping strategies
3. Personality: lower neuroticism and higher extraversion
4. Positive self-concept

Question 87

Managing Work-Related Stress

Answer 87

1. Remove the stressor.
   
   • Assigning employees to
     jobs that match their skills and preferences, reducing excessive workplace noise, having a complaint system and taking corrective action against harassment, and giving employees more control over the work process.
2. Withdraw from the stressor.
   
   • Another strategy is to permanently or temporarily remove employees from the stressor.
   • Permanent withdrawal occurs when employees are transferred to jobs that are more compatible with their abilities and values.
3. Change stress perceptions.
   
   • coaching employees to improve their self-concept, personal goal setting, and self-reinforcement practices.
4. Control stress consequences.
   
   • Keeping physically fit and maintaining a healthy lifestyle
5. Receive social support.

Question 88

Motivating Employees Through Coaching

Answer 88

To improve employee
motivation, many Canadian
organizations have replaced
their traditional formal
performance appraisal
systems with more frequent,
forward-looking coaching
and developmental
conversations.

Question 89

Employee Motivation and Engagement

Answer 89

Employee motivation
* The forces within a person
that affect the direction,
intensity (the amount of
physical, cognitive, and emotional energy expended at a given
moment to achieve a task or other objective) and persistence of
effort (how long people sustain
their effort as they move toward their goal) for voluntary behaviour.

Employee Engagement
* Employee’s emotional and
cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and purposeful effort toward work-related goals.
* It is associated with self-efficacy—the belief that you
have the ability, role clarity, and resources to get the job done
* Also includes a high level of absorption in the work—the experience of focusing
intensely on the task with limited awareness of events beyond
that work.

Question 90

Employee Drives

Answer 90

• Drives (also called primary
  needs), which we define as
  hardwired characteristics
  of the brain that attempt
  to keep us in balance by
  correcting deficiencies.
• Innate and universal.
• Produce emotions that energize us to take action (prime movers of behaviour).

Question 90

Employee Needs

Answer 90

• Goal-directed forces that people experience.
• We channel emotions toward specific goals.
• Goals formed by self-concept, social norms, and experience.
• Individual differences (including self-concept, social norms, and past experience) in needs amplify/suppress emotions.

Question 91

Four Drive Theory

Answer 91

Drive to acquire: seek, acquire,
control, retain objects or
experiences.
- It produces various needs, including achievement, competence,
status, and self-esteem

Drive to bond: form social
relationships and develop mutual
caring commitments with others.
- The drive to bond motivates people to cooperate and,
consequently, is essential for organizations and societies

Drive to comprehend: satisfy our
curiosity, know and understand
ourselves and the environment.
- When observing something that is inconsistent with or beyond our current knowledge, we experience a tension that motivates us to close that information gap.

Drive to defend: protect ourselves
physically, psychologically, and socially.
- it creates a fight-
or-flight response when we are confronted with threats to
our physical safety, our possessions, our self-concept, our
values, and the well-being of people around us.

Question 92

How Four Drives Motivate

Answer 92

1. Drives determine which emotions to tag to incoming sensory information.
2. Emotions become conscious experiences when
   sufficiently strong or conflict with each other.
3. Mental skill set relies on social norms, personal values, and experience to transform drive-based
   emotions into goal-directed choice and effort.

Question 93

Practical Implications of Four Drive Theory

Answer 93

• The best workplaces help
  employees fulfill all four
  drives.
• Keep fulfillment of the four
  drives in balance

Question 94

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory

Answer 94

• Seven categories (five in a
  hierarchy) represent most
  needs.

Self-
actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Safety

Physiological

• Lowest unmet need is
  strongest until satisfied, then
  next higher need becomes top
  motivator.

Model lacks empirical support.
* Main problem: People have
different needs hierarchies.
They are not universal.

Question 95

Maslow’s Contribution to Motivation

Answer 95

Holistic perspective.
* Recommended studying multiple needs together.

Humanistic perspective.
* Recognized that social dynamics, not just instinct, influence
motivation.

Positive perspective.
* Emphasized importance of self-actualization (growth needs).

Question 96

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 96

Intrinsic motivation:
* Fulfilling needs for competence and autonomy by engaging in
the activity itself, rather than from an externally controlled
outcome of that activity.

Extrinsic motivation:
* Occurs when people want to engage in an activity for
instrumental reasons – to receive something that is beyond
their personal control.

• Extrinsic motivators may undermine intrinsic motivation, but usually have minimal or no effect.

Question 97

Learned Needs Theory and 3 learned needs studied in research

Answer 97

Needs are learned (shaped, amplified, suppressed)
through self-concept, social norms, past experience.
* Training can change a person’s need strength through
reinforcement and altering their self-concept.

Three learned needs studied in research:

• Need for achievement (nAch) – choose moderately challenging tasks, desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success, and prefer working alone
  rather than in teams.
• Need for affiliation (nAff) – seek approval from others,
  want to conform to others’ wishes, avoid conflict & confrontation
• Need for power (nPow) –want to
  exercise control over others, are highly involved in
  team decisions, rely
  on persuasion, and are
  concerned about maintaining their leadership
  position.

Question 98

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Answer 98

Expectancy theory: A motivation theory based on the idea
that work effort is directed
toward behaviours that
people believe will lead to
desired outcomes

Question 99

Three components of the expectancy theory model

Answer 99

1. E-to-P expectancy.
   - This is the individual’s perception
   that their effort will result in a specific level of performance.

• In some situations, employees may believe that they can unquestionably accomplish the task. - In other situations, they expect that even their highest level of effort will not result in the desired performance level
• In most cases it falls between these two extremes

2. P-to-O expectancy
   - This is the perceived probability that a specific behaviour or performance level will lead to
   a specific outcome.

• In extreme cases, employees may
  believe that accomplishing a specific task (performance)
  will definitely result in a specific outcome or they may believe that successful performance
  will have no effect on this outcome - More often, the P-to-O expectancy falls somewhere
  between these two extremes.

3. Outcome valences
   - A valence is the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an individual feels toward
   an outcome
   - It ranges from negative to positive. (The actual range doesn’t matter; it may be from − 1 to + 1 or
   from − 100 to + 100.)
   - Outcomes have a positive valence
   when they are consistent with our values and satisfy our
   needs; they have a negative valence when they oppose our values and inhibit need fulfillment.

Question 100

Expectancy Theory in Practice

Answer 100

Increasing E-to-P Expectancies.
* Hire/train staff, and adjust job duties to skills.
* Provide sufficient time and resources.
* Provide coaching and modelling (examples of successful coworkers)
to build self-efficacy.

Increasing P-to-O Expectancies.
* Measure performance accurately.
* Explain how rewards are linked to performance.
* Provide examples of coworkers rewarded for performance.

Increasing Outcome Valences.
* Ensure that rewards are valued.
* Individualize rewards.
* Minimize countervalent outcomes.

Question 101

A-B-Cs of Behaviour Modification

Answer 101

Antecedents:
What happens
before behaviour –>

Behaviour:
What a person
says or does –>

Consequences
What happens
after behaviour

EXAMPLE:

Phone makes a
distinctive sound –>

You check phone
for new message –>

New message has
useful information

Question 102

Four OB Mod Consequences

Answer 102

Positive reinforcement:
* When reinforcer is introduced,
behaviour increases or is
maintained.
E.g. Receiving praise from co-workers is an example of positive
reinforcement because the praise usually maintains or increases
your likelihood of helping them in future.

Punishment:
* When introduced, behaviour
decreases.
- Most of us would
consider being demoted or criticized by our co-workers as
forms of punishment

Extinction:
* When no consequence,
behaviour decreases.
E.g. performance tends to decline when managers stop congratulating employees for their good work

Negative reinforcement:
* When consequence removed,
behaviour increases.
E.g. managers apply negative reinforcement when they stop
criticizing employees whose
substandard performance has
improved.

Question 103

Social Cognitive Theory

Answer 103

Learning behaviour
consequences:
* Observe others’
consequences.
* Anticipate consequences in
other situations.

Behaviour modelling:
* Observe, model others.

Self-regulation.
* Intentional, purposeful action.
* Set goals and standards,
anticipate consequences.
* Self-reinforcement.

Question 104

Effective Goal Setting Features

Answer 104

Specific – What, how, where, when, and with whom the task needs to be accomplished.

Measurable – how much, how well, at what cost.

Achievable – challenging, yet accepted (E-to-P).

Relevant – within employee’s control.

Time-framed – due date and when assessed.

Exciting – employee commitment, not just compliance.

Reviewed – feedback and recognition on goal progress
and accomplishment.

Question 105

Characteristics of Effective Feedback

Answer 105

Specific: refers to identifiable behaviour/outcomes.

Relevant: behaviour/outcomes within employee’s
control.

Timely: as soon as possible.

Credible: trustworthy source (knowledgeable,
unbiased, describe the feedback in a supportive and empathetic manner).

Sufficiently frequent: more often for learners,otherwise according to task cycle

Question 106

Strengths-Based Coaching

Answer 106

Maximize employee potential by focusing on strengths
rather than weaknesses.

Strengths-based coaching process:
* Employee identifies area of strength/potential.
* Coach helps employee discover how to leverage strengths.
* Discussion of situational barriers and solutions.

Strengths-based coaching motivates because:
* People seek feedback about their strengths, not flaws.
* Personality, interests, preferences stabilize as an adult.

Question 107

Sources of Feedback

Answer 107

Nonsocial sources:
* Feedback not conveyed directly by people (Example:
electronic displays).

Social sources:
* Feedback directly from others.

• Multisource feedback: full circle of people around employee.

Preferred feedback source:
* Use nonsocial feedback for goal progress feedback.
* Use social sources for conveying positive feedback.

Question 108

Organizational Justice (3 types)

Answer 108

The perception that appropriate formal or informal rules have been applied to the situation

1. Distributive justice: refers to the perception that appropriate decision criteria (rules) have been applied tocalculate how various
   benefits and burdens are
   distributed.
2. Procedural justice: The
   perception that appropriate
   procedural rules have been
   applied throughout the decision process.
3. Interactional justice: the perception that appropriate rules have been applied in the way
   employees are treated throughout the decision process.

Question 109

Equity Theory

Answer 109

A theory explaining how people
develop perceptions of fairness in the distribution and exchange of resources.

• The outcome/input ratio is
  the value of the outcomes you receive divided by the value
  of the inputs you provide in the exchange relationship.
  
  • Inputs include such things as skill, effort, reputation, performance, experience, and hours worked.
  • Outcomes are what employees
    receive from the organization, such as pay, promotions, rec-
    ognition, interesting jobs, and opportunities to improve one’s
    skills and knowledge.
• A central feature of equity theory is that individuals determine fairness in terms of a comparison other.
• The comparison of our own outcome/input ratio with the
  ratio of someone else results in perceptions of equity, under-
  reward inequity, or overreward inequity.

Question 110

Correcting Inequity Tension

Answer 110

1. Reduce our inputs.
2. Increase our outcomes.
3. Increase other’s inputs.
4. Reduce other’s outputs.
5. Change our perceptions.
6. Change comparison
   other.
7. Leave the field.

Question 111

Procedural Justice Rules (7)

Answer 111

• Decision makers have no self-interest or restrictive doctrines.
• Decisions consider having access to and possessing a complete set of accurate and comprehensive data
• Interests of all groups affected by the outcomes considered.
• Decisions and procedures are compatible with ethical
  principles.
• Decision criteria and procedures are applied consistently.
• Employees can present evidence and opinions (voice).
• Questionable decisions/procedures can be
  appealed/overturned.

Question 112

Interactional Justice Rules

Answer 112

• Employees are treated in a polite manner.
• Employees are treated with respect.
• Employees receive thorough and well justified explanations about the decision.
• Employees receive honest, candid, and timely information about the decision