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NUTR3210 > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Essential Nutrient

A

Chemical required for metabolism, can not be synthesized or can not be synthesized rapidly enough to meed the needs of an animal or human for one or more physiological functions

1) Removing nutrient causes a decline in health
2) Putting nutrient back in diet fixes health

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2
Q

Deficiency

A

Prevention of disease associated with the nutrient

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3
Q

Nutritional requirement

A

Ensure optimal health

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4
Q

Limitations with nutritional recommendations

A

Age, gender, body size, physical activity

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5
Q

Nutrient requirement labels

A

Daily values are based on a 2 000 calorie a day diet

Made using DRIs

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6
Q

Dietary Reference intake (DRI)

A

Umbrella term, refers to set of reference values for nutrients (EAR, RDA, AI and UL

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7
Q

Macronutrients

A

Fats, carbs and proteins

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8
Q

Establishing nutrient requirements

A

Estimated average requirement (EAR): The needs of 50% of the population are met

Recommended dietary allowance (RDA): The needs of 97% of the population are met ** What organizations are going for

Some people need top consume a lot more than others to get to the same point!

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9
Q

RDA

A

EAR + 2STD dev

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10
Q

Upper limit (UL)

A

Highest level of continuous daily nutrient intake that causes no risk of adverse effects.

No one is deficient. Agencies do not strive for this, not realistic due to genetic issues, food allergies etc

Reason why we can not just overshoot requirements to make sure everyone gets enough

Each nutrient has a different sized gap

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11
Q

Adequate intake (AI)

A

When not enough info to establish an EAR and RDA

Based off of much less scientific data

Determined base on intake in healthy people who are assumed to have an adequate nutritional status. Expected to meet or exceed the needs of most individuals

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12
Q

Understanding a nutritions diet

A

Adequate: Enough calories, essential nutrients and fibre to keep you healthy

Moderate: Ensuring you do not consume too many calories, or eat too much of one food group

Balanced: Nutrient dense foods

Varied: Eating a wide selection of foods to get the necessary nutrients

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13
Q

Methods for studying nutrition

A

Cell culture models (not great because we eat food not just nutrients)

Animal models

Epidemiological cohorts studies (lifestyle in relation to nutrition) (prospective vs retrospective: Looking into the future/ looking back on old results)

Intervention studies (randomized control trial (RCT): People are placed into randomized groups and observed

ChallengesL Genetics, lifestyle, cultural habits

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14
Q

Micronutrients

A

Vitamins

Minerals

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15
Q

Organic (contain carbon)

A

Carbs/ fibre
Lipids
Proteins
Vitamins

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16
Q

Inorganic (no carbon)

A

Minerals

WATER

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17
Q

Metabolism

A

Anabolism (building up) + catabolism (breaking down)

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18
Q

Water

A

Main component of blood

Deficiency is not a huge issue as we know when we need to drink (we get thirsty)

20% will come from foods

Solvent in biochemical reactions, catabolism (hydrolysis), nutrient transport, temp regulation

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19
Q

Water toxicity

A

water intake&raquo_space;> kidney’s ability to process

When you consume too much water and there is not enough electrolytes, sodium in cells will flow out to create a new equilibrium

Only really happens when someone is avoiding urination (water floods into cells and burst)

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20
Q

Hyponatremia

A

Water/ Na imbalance

Causes CNS edema and muscle weakness

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21
Q

Constituents

A

Nutrient breakdown

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22
Q

Quality control

A

Ensuring composition does not change overtime. Critical for a food industry perspective so raw material can be standardized (always look and taste the same

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23
Q

Food analysis

A

Development, application and study of analytical methods for characterizing food and constituents. Important, allows consumer to make informed decisions

Government regulations: Maintain high quality of food, fait competition between companies, eliminate economic fraud

Quality control

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24
Q

Nutrient density in food

A

Caloric count does not predict nutrients eg cupcakes (empty calorie) or broccoli (nutrient dense)

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25
Q

Moisture (water content)

A

Air dry food sample by putting it in hot even and heating up so evaporates.

Important because water is weight (more water= higher shipping costs)

Too much and food will spoil quicker, too little and food will be less palatable

Moisture duties energy and nutrients in food

(wet weight- dry weight)/ wet weight x 100

AG industry labelling is based more on dry matter, human food on wet weight

Possible errors: Drying can remove other volatile compounds such as short chain fatty acids and some minerals. Allows new methods being created.

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26
Q

Ether extract

A

Dry matter undergoes ether extraction

wet weight of ether extract/ wet weight of sample x100

Potential sources or error: Other things are soluble in ether extract (chlorophyll, resins, waxes) so this will over- estimate crude fat determination. We need more technologies that are more precise. Gas chromatography is a newer method

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27
Q

ASH

A

Ignite ether residue to get ash (minerals, sodium etc.) Gets rid of anything with carbon so left strictly with minerals

Important for nutritional labelling, quality and taste of food, microbiological stability, nutritional requirements, manufacture processing

weight of ash/ wet weight of sample x100

Sources of error: Volatile minerals may be lost when burning residue, possible to loose some, underestimating the mineral content
No information about individual minerals. Very significant limitation.

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28
Q

Kjeldahl analysis

A

Done to get nitrogen from the dry matter. Nitrogen is used to estimate the amount of protein

Assumptions: All nitrogen is in protein, all protein contains 16% nitrogen

Crude protein: Protein approximation

1) Digestion: Food sample is mixed with sulphuric acid, converts nitrogen into ammonia
2) Distillation: Separates the ammonia
3) Titration: Quantifies the amount of ammonia

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29
Q

% crude protein

A

(N in sample x6.25)/ wet weight of sample x100

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30
Q

Where is the number 6.25 from

A

100% / 16%= 6.25

Even though actual range is 13-19%

Other sources of nitrogen: Any nitrates, nitrites, urea, nucleic acid etc, The food in sample would therefore be part of the crude protein calculation (slight over estimation)

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31
Q

% crude fibre

A

(wt of ASH + crude fibre)- (wt of ASH)/ wet weight of sample x100

Fibre is not digestible, post ether extortion, solution which was used for fat composition would be discarded, Ppt boiled into acid and then boiled into alkaline solution to mimic digestion (through stomach to small intestine)

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32
Q

Crude fibre vs. dietary fibre

A

Crude fibre: mainly cellulose and lignin

Dietary fibre: Used to describe all fibre (both soluble and insoluble fibres) in a food. To better estimate dietary fibre content, additional analysis are necessary

Potential sources of error: unable to distinguish different fibre components

Measuring crude fibre under estimates actual dietary fibre content of feed by up to 50%. Because dietary fibre includes cellulose, hem cellulose, pectin, mucilages, gums, ligin etc. Soluble fibres are lost during the proximal analysis (lost in either acid or alkaline analysis)

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33
Q

Nitrogen free extract (NFE)

A

= digestible carbohydrate (CHO)

Estimates starch and sugar content

100- (% moisture + % crude fat + % ash + % crude protein + % crude fibre)

This accumulates all of the errors that exist for the other components. Starting point to distinguish between starches and sugars

Still used as the basis for human food labelling and animal feed analysis, no information on digestibility of food (so we do not know what will actually be absorbed)

No info on specific amino acids, minerals, lipids or carbs

Has promoted the development of more advanced analytical assays to improve food characterization

For humans we start with wet weight, ag starts with dry. Percentages will be different but weight will be the same

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34
Q

Dietary fibre

A

Non- digestible complex CHO, structural part of plants (we do not have the enzymes to break these down)

Insoluble: Cellulose, Lignin, hemicellulose. Intact through intentional tract. Does not dissolve in water

Soluble: Pectins, gums, mucilages. Forms gel, does dissolve in water

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35
Q

More accurate fibre analyses (to complete the proximate analysis)

A

Van soest method

Southgate method

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36
Q

Van soest method for fibre analysis in feeds (detergent fibre analysis)

A

Differentiates between insoluble fibres. Determines fermentable and non- fermentable CHO (when fibre is fermented it can be energy)

Very important for ag applications. Not used for human analysis because it poorly differentiates sugars, starches and soluble fibres

Cellulose and hemicellulose, lignin ( poorly fermentes, prevents fermentation of other fibres)

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37
Q

Southgate method

A

Provides information about sugars, starch and various fibres

Useful for human nutrition and food labeling.

Does not differentiate sufficiently between various insoluble fibre components adequately

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38
Q

GI tract

A

= gut. Digestive system refers to the GI tract and associated organs (liver, pancreas, gall bladder)

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39
Q

Soluble

A

Is CHO soluble in aqueous environment of digestive tract (not determined by enzymes, determined by physical and chemical properties

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40
Q

Digestibility

A

Does the host organism have the enzymes necessary to digest CHO (non digestible CHO= fibres)

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41
Q

Fermentability

A

Do gut bacteria have the enzymes needed to break it down

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42
Q

Sample system w/o caecum

A

Mono-gastric, suited for a nutrient dense, low fibre diet.

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43
Q

Oral cavity

A

Food is chewed and mixed with saliva

44
Q

Stomach (mono gastric no caecum)

A

Cardia, funds, body and atrium are functionally distinct regions of the stomach but not anatomically distinct

Empty=5mL, filled =1-1.5L
Gastric emptying= 2-6 hours
Gastric glands secrete gastric juice

45
Q

Small intestine (monogastric no caecum)

A

Main site for nutrient digestion and absorption (30m^2). large surface area die to colds, cilli and crips
Microvilli: Brush boorder membrane

Chyme acidity neutralized by pancreatic juice
Food digested by pancreatic juice and bile acids

46
Q

Large intestine (monogastric no caecum)

A

Site of fermentation. Production of short chain fatty acids (SCFS) which are known as volatile fatty acids (VFA). Source of energy for bacteria

Site for water absorptopn

47
Q

Nutrient transport mechanisms

A

Mechanism depends on nutrients solubility, concentration gradient, molecular size

Diffusion: High to low conc gradient

Facilitated diffusion: Same but requires a channel

Active transport requires every against a concentration gradient

Needs to go from intentional lumen too the enterocyte (cellular) cytoplasm

48
Q

Gut bacteria

A

Everyone has slightly different species in their gut with similar core functions. More anaerobic than aerobic

49
Q

Probiotics

A

Beneficial bacteria to improve gut health

50
Q

Simple system with functional caecum

A

Pseudo ruminant, hindgut fermenter, subtle for a diet with large amounts of forage

Also known as a hind gut fermenter (fermentation takes place after the small intestine)

51
Q

Caecum

A

Enormous hindgut filled with bacteria

SCFA provides 70% of total energy needs for host. Site for the production of vitamins

Signs of energy/ nutrient deficiency: Coprophagy (eating dung/ faces) . Young animals eating faces colonize their gifts with bacteria

52
Q

Where nutrients are absorbed in horses

A

Small intestine: Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids

Large intestine and caecum: Lactic acid, amino acids

53
Q

Ruminant

A

Suited for animals that eat hight quality forage. Foregut fermenters

1) Reticulum
2) Rumen
3) Omasum
4) Abomasum

Nutrients are produced by bacteria then become available for digestion and absorption by the ruminant

1) Rumination
2) Eructation (belching)

54
Q

Grazers vs browsers

A

Horses are grazers, cows are browsers

55
Q

Reticulum

A

Honeycomb appearance to capture nutrients and trap foreign material

Rich in bacteria (fermentation vat)

56
Q

Rumen

A

Largest, fermentation vat

Rumen papillae increases surface area for absorption (like microvilli in human intestine)

Food is mixed and partially broken down and stored temporarily

60-80% of total energy produced here as SCFA

57
Q

Omasum

A

Reabsorption of water and some electrolytes, filters large particles

58
Q

Abomasum

A

Digestive enzymes secreted from gastric glands (HCl, mucin, pepsinogen, lipase etc.) true stomach

59
Q

Pros of rumen system

A

Vitamin synthesis, non- protein nitrogen can be used for making protein

60
Q

What does fermentation refer to

A

CARBS

61
Q

Cons of rumen system

A

Carbs degraded into gases and lost through eructation, heat production (due to fermentation)

62
Q

Avian system

A

Beaks and claws break for into smaller pieces

Rapid digestion: Birds can starve if deprived of food for a few hours (adapted for constant grazing)

Crop: Enlarged esophagus, storage for food so they can pick some up and fly away. Food is softened here, often regurgitated to feed to offspring

63
Q

Avian stomach

A

Glandular portion: Proventriculus (chemical digestion. Like our stomach)

Gizzard: Physical digestion (because they have no teeth)

64
Q

Avain small intestine

A

Similar to other systems

65
Q

Avian Ceca

A

Minor site of bacterial fermentation, Two small caecum. Functional, just not a huge contributor

66
Q

Avain large intestine

A

Very short, connects cloaca and small intestine

Storage or undigested material, water absorption

67
Q

Caloca

A

Where digestive, urinary and reproductive systems meet (unite to avian, after small intestine, before recutm)

68
Q

Digestibility

A

Calculated from the amount of nutrient in diet and the amount appearance in faces

Represents a combination of nutrient release from the food matrix, microbial fermentation and absorption

Need to prevent deficiency and ensure essential nutrients are available to the organism

69
Q

Total collection method

A

Allow animal to adapt to a diet over 7-21 day period

Isolate animal for quantitative analysis

Measure intake over a 3-10 day period

Collect and weigh all faces \

Analyze for nutrient

Apparent digestibility coefficient= (total intake - total feces)/ total intake

70
Q

Limitations of the total collection method

A

Accuracy in measuring food intake (animals will spill foods)

Metabolic cages creates anxiety in animals, which may make them behave abnormally

Labour intensive

Animals confined in costly equipment, not feasible for captive wild animals

71
Q

Indicator method (matter technique)

A

Requires a marker: internal (natural component of feed) and external (a component added to the feed)

Characteristics of a marker: nn absorbable, not affected or be affected by the GIT, mix easily with the food, easily and accurately measured in samples

1) Adapt animal to test diet (which contains a marker)
2) Collect a feed and decal sample
3) Analyze each for marker and nutrient of interest relative to you indicator

Advantages of this method: Less labour intensive, ideal for wild animals

A= ratio of nutrient/ marker in feed

B= ratio of nutrient/ marker in faces

(A-B)/A

72
Q

Apparent vs true digestibility

A

Apparent digestibility underestimates true digestibility because the following are not considered

Endogenous secretions (eg. fatty acids released from dying epithelial cells)

Bacterial growth in gut (eg. biotin produced by gut bacteria)

Digestive enzymes (eg. protein secretion, digestive enzymes released by cells)

73
Q

True digestibility

A

1) Preform digestibility study using test diet
2) Switch to diet containing none of the nutrient of intrest (zero nutrient diet)
3) Analyze faces after test diet is cleared
4) Subtract level of nutrient in feces of animals fed the zero nutrient diet from the test diet

74
Q

True digestibility coefficient formula

A

A= ratio of nutrient/ marker in test diet

B= ratio of nutrient/ marker in faces (after test diet)

C= Ratio of nutrient/ marker in faces after zero nutrient diet

(A-(B-C))/A

75
Q

Factors that affect digestibility

A

Feed intake, particle size, chemical composition, climate (digestibility is higher when it is warmer), age

76
Q

SI unit for energy

A

kJ

77
Q

What is a calorie

A

Measure of heat to express the energy content of food

1000 chemistry calories= 1 food calorie= 1kcal= 4.18kJ

78
Q

Positive energy balance

A

More in (food and drink) than out

weigh gain, infertility, increased blood lipids, insulin resistance

79
Q

Negative energy balance

A

More out (metabolic and cellular function/ physical activity) then in

80
Q

Calorimetry

A

Measure of heat production

Uses heat as an indicator of the amount of energy stored in the C-H bonds of foods

81
Q

Bomb calorimeter

A

Works according to principles of direct calorimetry (directly measures the amount of energy stored in chemical bonds of foods

1) Put try sample in the bomb with oxygen
2) ignite sample
3) Head released is absorbed by water rand measured

Heat of combustion (gross energy)= maximum energy

Potential errors
Over estimates energy (eg. we do not digest fibre)

Does not take into account the energy needed for digestion and absorption

82
Q

Physiological fuel values

A

Also called Atwater values, available energy or metabolizable energy. Takes into account incomplete digestion

Nitrogen makes urea with hydrogen which is excreted in urine (nitrogen is not used for anything in the body). This loss of hydrogen affects the heat of combustion

Lipids have lots of hydrogen atoms available for cleavage

(heat of combustion - energy lost in urine) x apparent digestibility

CHO- 4
Fat- 9
Protein- 4

83
Q

Factors that affect heat of combustion of fatty acids

A

Chain length (longer chain= more energy)

Degree of unsaturation (more double bonds, the less energy released (for equal chain lengths)

84
Q

When calories do not always add up

A

Fibre is the problem

85
Q

Use of metabolizable energy

A

Heat increment of feeding (HIF) is also called the thermic effect of food. energy used for the digestion, absorption, disturbiution and storage of nutrients

Comprises 5-30% of daily net energy usage

Used to determine net energy

net energy= metabolizable energy- HIF

86
Q

Total energy expenditure

A

1) Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
2) Thermal effect of food (HIF)
3) Physical activity energy expenditure (PAEE)
4) Thermoregulation (which does not really need to be considered because when we are cold we will put on a sweater. we adapt to the thermal energy around us

87
Q

Basal metabolic rate (kcal/ 24h)

A

Measured shortly after waking, have not yet had a meal, lying down, completely relaxed, comfortable room temp

Muscle and bone are most reflective of BMR

BMR= Ax M^0.75 kcal/ day

Based on metabolic weight

Metabolically active tissue (A)= 70 for humans. each species has its one value

M= body weight in kg

0.75= kleiber’s law. Constant

Most accurate way to measure is measuring body fat percentage with specialized equipment. This is the most accurate . Uses the katch- mcardle BMR equation which is the same for both men and women

88
Q

Haris- benidict equation

A

More refined, based off of large population based studies

89
Q

Resting metabolic rate

A

Like BMR just experiment is not as accurate

90
Q

Factors that can affect BMR

A

Genetics (inheritance of a fast or slow metabolic rate)

Age (young> old because of greater muscle mass

Sex (men>women (greater muscle mass)

Exercise changes body tissue proportions due to changes in muscle mass. The more fat free mass, the higher your BMR

Temperature (maintaining thermoregulation)

91
Q

Measuring total energy expenditure

A

All metabolic processes generate heat, which can be used as a measure of energy expenditure by direct or indirect calorimetry

92
Q

Calorimetry (general combustion equation)

A

Fuel +O2 —-(respiration)—> CO2 + H2O + Heat

Fuel= Diet (cho, fat, protein. could also be a mixed food sample or a fecal sample)

O2 and CO2 are from indirect calorimetry. This measures oxygen consumption and CO2 expenditure

Heat: Direct calorimetry

93
Q

Direct calorimetry

A

Measures the heat a person generates, total heat loss. Very expensive and impractical as you have to lock someone in a metabolic chamber and their heat heats water in a pipe for 24h

94
Q

Indirect calorimetry

A

Energy- releasing reactions in the body, depends on the use of oxygen (oxidation of foods in your body produces CO2.)

Estimates energy requirements by measuring: O2 consumption (L), carbon dioxide production (L), urinary nitrogen loss (g)

This method can not account for anaerobic processes (eg. production of lactic acid (lactate) from glucose during intense exercise.

people do not measure urinary nitrogen loss because protein is not usually used to produce energy so it does not really need to be considered.

Cons: Hyperventilation, hard to get an airtight seal. Masks are impractical

Advantages: Useful with animals, can determine the type of substrate being oxidized

95
Q

Direct vs indirect calorimetry

A

Very comparable

96
Q

Respiratory quotient (RQ)

A

Provides information about: Energy expenditure, biological substrate being oxidized (carbs or fat)

Ratio of metabolic gas exchange

RQ= CO2 produced/ O2 consumed

Non protein RQ, protein contributes very little to energy metabolism

Differs for every macronutrients

For each non- protein RQ value, their is a caloric value for each L of O2 consumed or CO2 produced

Table also tells you how much CHO and fat contribute to energy

97
Q

RQ assumptions made

A

Only CHO and fat are metabolized

No synthesis is taking place at the same time as breakdown

Amount of CO2 exhaled= amount of CO2 produced by tissues

98
Q

Changing RQ: The crossover concept

A

When muscle starts to use more CO2 than fat to sustain power. Endurance (fat) vs high intensity (CHO)

Training will enable a person to more the cross over to the right, meaning more fat is used than CHO

99
Q

Carbohydrate classification

A

Monosaccharide: Naturally occurring, most common is glucose, cannot be hydrolyzed into a smaller unit. Considered a reducing sugar when the anomeric carbon is free

Disaccharide: Most common is sucrose, two monosaccharides joined by an acetyl (glycosidic) bond

Complex: Oligosaccharides, polysaccharides. Homo and hetero. Glycogen (animal) starch and cellulose (plant)

ALL CHO have a H:O ratio of 2:1 ( very oxidized to begin with)

100
Q

Monosaccharides

A

Trioses: Metabolites of glucose. We do not consume these, but we can find them in our body as we break down glucose.

Pentose: Components of DNA and RNA

Hexose: Nutritionally, the most important

Also is any monosaccharide that has an aldehyde, same vibe applies to ketose

101
Q

Sterioism

A

Same molecular formula and sequence, differ in 3D space

L (OH of highest chiral carbon on the left) and D (OH of the highest chiral carbon on the right) isoforms

Chiral compounds: Attached to four different atoms or groups

Number of steeoisomers for a molecule= 2^n (where n= # chiral carbons)

D monosaccharides are nutritional important, digestive enzymes are stereospecific for D sugars. We can not process L sugars

102
Q

Fisher –> Haworth

A

1) Non- acetyl/ non- ketal Ch2Oh always points up
2) for OH groups: If it is right in the Fischer, it’s below in Haworth. If it’s left in the Fischer, it’s above Haworth
3) Hermiacetal: Alpha has the OH group pointing down, beta has the OH group pointing up

103
Q

Anomeric carbon

A

Carbonyl group

104
Q

Disaccharides (most common oligosaccharide)

A

2 monosaccharides attached by a glycosidic bond (formed between two hydroxyl groups) which can be alpha or beta

105
Q

Polysaccharides

A

Min 6 monosaccharides attached by glycosidic bonds

Homopolysacharides are more abundant in food

Alpha (1,6) binds create branching. More ends there are, the more energy we get. Much more rapid way of obtaining glucose

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