Midterm

Question 1

Abstract

Answer 1

a brief description of the study placed at the beginning of the article 
o	Concise summary of the study 
o	Usually less than 300 words
o	Should provide the following:
	Research problem
	Results / findings
	Main conclusions
	Recommendations

Question 2

Best source of evidence

Answer 2

Systematic Reviews- (level 1) the strongest evidence comes from careful synthesis of multiple studies

Question 3

Bias

Answer 3

a distortion or influence that results in an error in inference

Question 4

Bivariate descriptive statistics: Cross tabulation

Answer 4

frequencies of two variables are analyzed against each other

Question 5

Bivariate descriptive statistics: Correlation

Answer 5

association between variables

Question 6

Bivariate descriptive statistics: Correlation coefficient

Answer 6

describes intensity and direction of a relationship

 correlation coefficient range from −1.00 through .00 to +1.00

Question 7

Bivariate descriptive statistics: Positive relationship

Answer 7

relationship between two variables in which high values on one variable tend to be associated with high values on the other

Question 8

Bivariate descriptive statistics: Negative (inverse) relationship

Answer 8

variables are inversely related, higher values on one variable are associated with lower values in the second

Question 9

Bivariate descriptive statistics: Pearson’s r

Answer 9

 most widely used correlation statistic
 computed with continuous measures
 Need to have interval or ratio level variables

Question 10

Bivariate descriptive statistics: Spearman’s rho

Answer 10

correlations between variables measured on an ordinal scale

Question 11

Calculating median

Answer 11

o 1, 5, 2, 8, 7
o sort numbers: 1, 2, 5, 7, 8
o Median is 5
o If even numbers, median is the arithmetic average (mean) of the 2 numbers

Question 12

Consecutive sampling

Answer 12

o Recruitment of all people from an accessible population over a specific time interval or for a specified sample size
o Best possible choice when there is “rolling enrollment” into an accessible population

Question 13

Convenience sampling

Answer 13

selecting the most conveniently available people as participants
o People might be atypical of the population (risk of bias)
o Weakest form of sampling, also most commonly used sampling method

Question 14

Credibility

Answer 14

A criterion for evaluating integrity and trustworthiness in qualitative studies, referring to confidence in the truth of the data; analogous to internal validity in quantitative research

Question 15

Critical theory research

Answer 15

o Critique of society
o Envisions new possibilities
o Action oriented
o Inspire change

Question 16

Data saturation

Answer 16

involves sampling until no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved
o Participants are insightful- saturation achieved with a small sample
o A larger sample is needed with maximum variation sampling

Question 17

Debriefing

Answer 17

Communication with study participants after participation is complete regarding aspects of the study (explaining the purpose of the study more fully)

Question 18

Descriptive statistics

Answer 18

o	Used to synthesize/summarize/ describe data.
o	Parameters:
	Characteristics of a population
o	3 Characteristics:
	Shape of distribution of values
	Central tendency
	Variability

Question 19

Frequency distribution positive skew

Answer 19

o Asymmetrical, the peak is off center, and one tail is other than the other.
o When one tail points to the RIGHT the distribution has a positive skew.

Question 20

Inference

Answer 20

a conclusion drawn from the study evidence using logical reasoning and taking into account the methods used to generate the evidence

Question 21

Levels of measurement: Nominal

Answer 21

	Lowest level
	Organized in categories
	Cannot be compared
	Exclusive
	Ex: gender, ethnicity, marital status, diagnosis

Question 22

Levels of measurement: Ordinal

Answer 22

	Organized in categories
	Can be compared (ranked)
	Rank higher or lower/better or worse
	Exclusive
	Unequal intervals
	Ex: mild, moderate, severe pain OR…no exercise, some exercise, heavy exercise

Question 23

Levels of measurement: Interval

Answer 23

	Equal numerical distances between intervals
	Exclusive
	Continuum value
	LACKS A ZERO POINT!
	Ex: temperature

Question 24

Levels of measurement: Ratio

Answer 24

	Highest level
	Exclusive
	Ordered
	Equally spaced interval
	Continuum value
	DOES HAVE ABSOLUTE ZERO
	Ex: weight, height, volume

Question 25

Measures of central tendency: mode

Answer 25

 Value that occurs most frequently  Used with nominal data  Bimodal distribution  Multimodal distribution

Question 26

Measures of central tendency: median

Answer 26

 Exact center of frequency distribution  Think midpoint  Used with ordinal data  Not affected by extreme scores

Question 27

Measures of central tendency: mean

Answer 27

 Sum of the scores divided by the number of scores being summed  Used with interval or nominal data

Question 28

Member check

Answer 28

a method of validating the credibility of qualitative data through debriefings and discussions with informants

Question 29

Outliers

Answer 29

a data point that differs significantly from other observations

Question 30

PICO question

Answer 30

``` o P- population  Age  Gender  Ethnicity  With certain disorder (diabetes) o I-interventions  Exposure to disease  Risk behavior o C-comparison  No disease  Placebo or no intervention or therapy  Absence of risk factor o O-outcome  Risk of disease  Accuracy of diagnosis  Rate of occurrence of adverse outcome ```

Question 31

Prolonged engagement

Answer 31

the investment of sufficient time collecting data to have an in-depth understanding of the culture, language, or views of the people or group under study o Tests for misinformation o Ensures saturation of important categories o Important for building trust with informants

Question 32

Purposive sampling

Answer 32

o Using researchers’ knowledge about the population to handpick sample members o Leads to bias but useful approach when researchers want a sample of experts

Question 33

Qualitative sampling methods: Convenience (think volunteer)

Answer 33

 Volunteer samples come forward and identify themselves.  Efficient, economical, and convenient  Not preferred

Question 34

Qualitative sampling methods: Snowball (think network)

Answer 34

 Asking informants to make referrals  Restrictive to small network  Lower quality in sample

Question 35

Qualitative sampling methods: Purposive (think purposeful)

Answer 35

```  Several different types  Deliberately choose (on purpose) the cases that will contribute to the study. • Maximum variation sampling • Extreme (deviant) case sampling • Typical case sampling • Criterion sampling ```

Question 36

Qualitative sampling methods: Theoretical

Answer 36

 Used in grounded theory • 20-30 sample size  Based on the development of the theory

Question 37

Quasi-experimental design advantages

Answer 37

o More practical for a natural setting o Useful for people who are not always willing to be randomized  Has generalizability of the results

Question 38

Research findings

Answer 38

are meant to reflect “truth in the real world” o Inference involves drawing conclusions based on limited information and using logical reasoning  valid to the extent that the researchers have made good decisions in selecting proxies and have controlled sources of bias

Question 39

Research hypothesis

Answer 39

Predicted answers to research questions. State the expected relationship between the IV and DV o Offer direction o Suggest explanations o Promotes critical thinking o Directional Hypothesis-Expected direction of the relationship o Nondirectional Hypothesis-Does not stipulate direction of the relationship o Null Hypothesis-Absence of relationship. H01

Question 40

Research problem statement elements

Answer 40

``` o 1.) Problem identification o 2.) Background o 3.) Scope of problem o 4.) Consequences of the problem o 5.) Knowledge gaps o 6.) Proposed solution ```

Question 41

Retrospective design

Answer 41

Outcome (effect) observed is linked to potential cause from the past

Question 42

Sample size

Answer 42

the number of people who participate in a study; an important factor in the power of the analysis and in statistical conclusion validity in quantitative research

Question 43

Semi structured interviews (or focused)

Answer 43

o Researchers have a list of list of topics or broad questions that must be covered in an interview o Use a topic guide

Question 44

Simple random sampling

Answer 44

o most basic probability sampling o establish a sampling frame (a list of population elements) o 1. Elements in a sampling frame are numbered o 2. A table of random numbers or an online randomizer is used to draw a random sample of the desired size. o Samples selected randomly are not likely to be biased. o There is no guarantee of a representative sample

Question 45

Statistical test

Answer 45

An analytic tool that estimates the probability that obtained results from a sample reflect the population values

Question 46

Cross-sectional

Answer 46

Data collected at one point in time  Economical  Pose problems for inferring changes over time

Question 47

Longitudinal

Answer 47

Data collected multiple times over an extended period |  Concern – attrition (losing participants over time)

Question 48

Type II error

Answer 48

o accepting the null hypothesis when it is false | o false-negative conclusion

Question 49

Types of knowing

Answer 49

``` o Traditions = customs o Authority = expertise o Borrowing = other fields o Trial and Error = unsure how to approach o Personal Experience = gaining knowledge o Role Modeling =Imitating o Intuition = gut feeling o Reasoning = critical thinking/logic ```

Question 50

Types of measurement: Direct

Answer 50

Measurement of concrete items |  Weight, height

Question 51

Types of measurement: Indirect

Answer 51

Captures elements of abstract concept |  Coping, anxiety

Question 52

Types of nonprobability sampling: Convenience sampling

Answer 52

* Selection of the most readily available persons as participants * BIAS!

Question 53

Types of nonprobability sampling: Quota sampling

Answer 53

* A nonrandom sampling method in which “quotas” for certain subgroups, based on sample characteristics, are established to increase the representativeness of the sample * Researchers identify population strata and figure out how many people are needed from each stratum * Quota sampling is similar to convenience sampling: Participants are a convenience sample from each stratum

Question 54

Types of nonprobability sampling: Consecutive sampling

Answer 54

* Recruitment of all people from an accessible population over a specific time interval or for a specified sample size * Best possible choice when there is “rolling enrollment” into an accessible population

Question 55

Types of nonprobability sampling: Purposive sampling

Answer 55

* Using researchers’ knowledge about the population to handpick sample members * Leads to bias but useful approach when researchers want a sample of experts

Question 56

Types of qualitative research: Ethnography

Answer 56

 Description and interpretation of culture & cultural behavior  Extensive fieldwork (time consuming)  Purpose: seek to learn from rather than study  -emic & -etic perspectives o Information sought:  Cultural behavior  Cultural artifacts  Cultural speech o Participant observation  Strategy used by ethnographers  Make observations while participating in activities

Question 57

Types of qualitative research: Phenomenology

Answer 57

```  Main data source is in-depth conversations  Key themes o Two main types:  Descriptive  Interpretative ```

Question 58

Types of qualitative research: Descriptive

Answer 58

(What do we know as persons?)  Depicts “things” as people experience them:  Eclectic design  In-depth collection of qualitative data  No traditional qualitative roots  Content analysis for data interpretation • Organizing data in key concepts/themes

Question 59

Types of qualitative research: Interpretative

Answer 59

 Rely on in depth interviews • May augment understandings  Lived experience and interpretive process  Goals: • To enter another’s word & discover the understandings.  Also referred to as Hermeneutics = understanding • Bracketing does not occur in interpretive phenomenology

Question 60

Types of qualitative research: Grounded theory

Answer 60

 Develops middle range theories  Identify main problem and offer resolution  Constant comparison is used • New data collected compared ongoing to previous data collected  In-depth interviews & participant interviews for data collection

Question 61

Types of qualitative research: Historical

Answer 61

 Systematic collection & critical evaluation of data related to past events/occurrences  Usually interpretive-describe what, how, & why  Primarily relies on written records: • Review data from diaries, letters, newspapers, medical documents o nonwritten data: photos & films • interview people who experienced past events

Question 62

Types of qualitative research: case studies

Answer 62

 Single or Small number of entities with in-depth review  Understand the “why” rather than the “what”  Strength/Weakness • Small sample and get most in-depth data

Question 63

Types of qualitative research: narrative analysis

Answer 63

 The story is the form of inquiry and understanding

Question 64

Types of qualitative research: critical theory

Answer 64

o Similar to critical theory  Focuses specifically on gender domination/discrimination  Goal: facilitate change to end women’s unequal social position

Question 65

Types of qualitative research: feminist research

Answer 65

 Production of knowledge can influence power | • Also focuses on action, empowerment, and raising awareness

Question 66

Types of quantitative research: experimental

Answer 66

 Randomized Controlled Trials (RCT) • “True Experiment” • Level 1 (pg 23 Fig 2.1) • Gold standard • Test the effects of an intervention AND random groups assigned  Pretest-Posttest design • Collect pretest data (baseline) – perform intervention – Collect posttest data (outcome)  Crossover design • Exposing people to more than one treatment

Question 67

Types of quantitative research: quasi-experimental

Answer 67

 nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design • Level II • Weaker because no randomization  Trials without randomization  Similar to pretest-posttest experimental design without randomized groups  How to identify: • Testing intervention o Comparison group instead of control group  No mention of random group assignment  Time-series Design

Question 68

Types of quantitative research: correlational

Answer 68

```  Level III  Examine relationship between variables  Non-experimental study  Correlations can be detected through statistical analyses  Does not prove causation  Specific correlational designs: • Prospective design (cohort design) o Start with a presumed cause • Retrospective design o Outcome (effect) observed is linked to potential cause from the past • Case-Control design o Review cases that meet certain criteria and identify controls ```

Question 69

Types of quantitative research: descriptive

Answer 69

 Level III |  Observe, describe, document situation

Question 70

Types of quantitative research: time dimensional (cross sectional/longitudinal)

Answer 70

o Cross-sectional  Data collected at one point in time  Economical  Pose problems for inferring changes over time o Longitudinal  Data collected multiple times over an extended period  Concern – attrition (losing participants over time)

Question 71

BSN

Answer 71

 Locate and critically appraise studies, evidence-based guidelines, protocols, and policies with assistance.  Use best research evidence in practice with guidance.  Assist with problem identification and data collection.

Question 72

MSN

Answer 72

 Critically appraise and synthesize studies to develop and review protocols for practice.  Implement best research evidence in practice.  Collaborate in research projects and provide clinical expertise for research.

Question 73

DNP

Answer 73

 Critically appraise studies and develop and refine protocols and policies for practice.  Participate in evidence-based guideline development.  Implement, evaluate, and revise as needed protocols, polices, and evidence-based guidelines in practice.

Question 74

PhD

Answer 74

 Major role in conducting independent research and contributing to the empirical knowledge generated in a selected area of study.  Obtain initial funding for research.  Coordinate research teams of BSN, MSN, and DNP nurses.