Midterm Flashcards
The basic building block of life
Cell
Race is a
Social Construction
Race has __ definitions. NOT ____, but exists racially and socially.
many, biological
Define race
geographic pattern of variation in some biological traits that distinguish different human populations
Anthology
holistically studying humanity, the study of humankind in all its forms.
Scientific Method’s Four Sub-Disciplines:
Cultural, Biological, Linguistic, and Archaeology
T/F: Bio and culture are not separate. They are intrinsically connected.
True
Scientific Method
- Observation
- Hypothesis
- Experiment/data collection
- Analyza (support or reject hypothesis)
T/F: We want to understand traits adaptive significance.
True
Scientific interpretation =
product of the social atmosphere
(Aristotle) and the “immutability of species”:
organisms do not change, and do not evolve. They are designed and created perfectly.
(Aristotle) and the “Great Chain of Being”:
There is a hierarchy of organisms. i.e. worms to white men to God.
Aristotle’s influence on Middle Ages
- Earth is full.
- Species are fixed.
- There is a grand design for every organism.
- Earth is perfect and there is no need to change.
- Earth is the center of the universe.
Copernicus
- Sun-centered solar system
Galileo
Early 1600’s. Repeated Copernicus’s ideas.
Carlos Linnaeus
Linnaean Hierarchy, classifying organisms. Kingdom hierarchy.
Comte de Buffon
Animals change in response to their environment (adaptation).
Cuvier
Concept of extinction, but with biblical twist explained by “catastrophism” like Noah’s flood.
Jean-Baptiste Lamark
Individuals evolve. Not true cause populations evolve.
Uniformitarianism
-geological process that what works today worked in the past. (Deep Time)
Darwin
On the Origin of Species (1859).
- naturalist
- evolution by natural selection
Alfred Russel Wallace
Independently discovered natural selection in Indonesia
Tenets of Natural Selection:
- More ind. are produced each generation than can survive.
- Phenotype variation exists among indv’s and that variation is heritable.
- Ind. with better suited traits to env. will survive and have greater reproductive success.
- When reproduction isolation occurs, so too will speciation.
Asa Gray
1st person in US to get copy of Darwin’s book. He passed it on to C. Loring Brace.
Transcendentalism
intuition over empiricism and materialism. Divinity flows into nature. People=good. Society=bad. Nature and Divine are intertwined. Can find God in Nature.
Polygenesis
multiple creations of humans at different rate of speed and times
monogenesis
one origin of humans and went on from there
T/F: Natural selection needs an intelligent creator. Process doesn’t work on chance. Change is not constant.
False
T/F Humans are special in natural selection
False
T/F Nature is filled with violence, death, and competition
True
Manifest Destiny
God has chosen us to take this land.
Social Darwinism
C. Loring Brace: the struggle for existence in NYC . Poverty is a byproduct of hereditary defects, they will adapt and progress towards better. (Monogenisis)
Gene relationship =
Simple
Past Concept of Blending Inheritance:
traits of one parent blend with traits of other parent.
ex) yellow duck + blue duck = green duck
Past concept: Pangenesis attributed to Darwin:
There are gemmutes in every part of our body that combine in sperm and egg in zygote created.
Genotype
genetic makeup of organism. i.e. gene
Phenotype
observable or physical feature of an organism under genetic control. i.e. physical of genotype
T/F The relationship between G-P can be simple or complex because of the environment!
True
Mendel (1822-1884)
Noticed “atypical” and “typical” traits in pea plants. Traits are discrete, they DO NOT BLEND.
Particular Inheritance
offspring gets either atypical traits or typical trait.
Mendel’s pea plants experiments
Start out with F0 (parent generation). Always a 3:1 ratio when crossing F1 generation and making F2 generation. i.e. three purple and one white. Traits occur in pairs with NO blending.
Humans have on average __ chromosomes
- (23 pairs)
Basic building block of DNA
Nucleotides
Evolution is a 2 step process
- Produce variation
2. Natural selection acting on phenotype
Natural selection acts on variation from first step of evolution in three ways:
- Directional
- Stabilizing
- Disruptive
- Sexual Selection (Special Case)
Define Evolution
A change in allele frequency over time
Parismony
the simplest conclusion is the most likely
T/F Pure races do not exist and have never existed
True
Mendel’s Law of Segregation
Chromosomes randomly segregate into sex cells. (Meiosis)
Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment
Traits are inherited independently of other traits
Mendelian genetics
Units can be dominant or recessive. i.e. Alleles-one from each parent.
Forensic Scientists are wrong b/c:
They are only looking at regional variation. These are traits simply due to genetic drift or survival.
Homozygous
Both alleles are dominant/recessive. “Homozygous-dominant” “Homozygous-recessive”
Heterozygous
one dominant allele and one recessive allele
T/F You only need one dominant allele to get dominant trait
True
Mendel solved Darwin /Galton dilemma by:
Accounting for loss in variation
Why care about Mendel?
Can predict genetic outcomes
Evolution by natural selection must include __!!
Heredity (genetics allow us to understand it)
Two types of cells:
- Eukaryote
2. Prokaryote
Prokaryote
Has NO nucleus, no separation of genetic material
Eukaryote
Has a nucleus and organelles. Separates genetic material. Complex organisms.
Two types of Eukaryote cells:
Somatic and Gamete
Somatic cell
Start out as stem cells- a general cell that can differentiate into cells like skin, bones, cartilage, etc..
Gamete cell
Sperm and egg
Chromosomes
DNA during replication. Organized DNA in order to efficiently replicate. Location of genes.
Chromatins
DNA most of the time. Unorganized DNA. (like spaghetti)
Nucleus is house of ___
DNA
Replication of Somatic cells
Mitosis
Replication of Gamete cells
Meiosis
Why does DNA fo from chromatin to chromosomes?
Chromatin is prone to errors and slow, and the goal is to replicate efficiently.
Watson and Crick
Developed Double-Helix model of Chromosomes.
Ashley Montagu (1942)
No biological races; Race is nothing but a social and political instrument.
Chromosomes in somatic cells:
diploid. 46 and 23 pairs. 22 are autosomes. 1 pair is the sex chromosome.
Chromosomes in gamete cells:
haploid. 23 total.
Mitosis
Result: 2 identical daughter cells.
Process: every chromosome duplicates, when they duplicate, they stick together (sister chromatids) and are pulled apart by mitosis.
Sister Chromatids
a duplicated chromosome stuck together
When is mitosis needed?
All the time, especially during growth and development.
Meiosis
Result: 4 identical daughter cells
Process: Essentially two rounds of mitosis.
Produces variation
When is meiosis needed?
Needed to produce sperm and ova, sexual production.
Special things about chromosomes:
- Each chromosome duplicates (46 to 92).
- Tetrads forms, crossing over occurs.
- Tetrads are pulled apart first
- Sister chromatids are pulled apart second = why siblings look alike.
* proximity allows tetrads to swap DNA = produces variation!!!!
Polymorphic variation
Within-group genetic diversity
Polytypic variation
between- group genetic diversity
T/F: Humans have both polytypic and polymorphic variation
True
DNA is made of ___
Nucleotides
Nucleotides 3 bases:
sugar, phosphate, base
Genes are made of ___
Segments
Adenine + ___ always links
Thymine
Cytosine + ___ always links
Guanime
Two Pyrimidines
Cytosine and Thymine
Two Phosphates
Guanime and Adenine
DNA 3 functions:
- Self-replication
- Protein synthesis
- Coordinate protein activities for growth and development.
Evolution operates at the level of the ____
Population
Natural selection operates at the level of ___
Individuals
T/F Current environment does not play a critical role in evolution
False
T/F Evolution can only change phenotype NOT genotype
True
How do allele frequencies change?
The forces of evolution. They are non-directional
3 forces of Evolution:
Mutation, Gene Flow, Genetic Drift
Mutation force (produces variation)
a gene is altered/alleles are the result (Good or bad)
Only way to produce new genetic variation. Mutation itself is slow, but fast with natural selection.
Gene Flow force (produces variation)
(migration) the flow of genes from one population to another among neighbors or interbreeding.
Genetic drift force (produces variation)
diverse large population—>random event—-> lower diversity and variation ex) zombie apocalypse
Founder’s Effect (From Genetic Drift)
Small band of founders leaves parent group and forms isolated colony ex) the Amish
Directional theory (natural selection)
a constant shift in allele frequency in response to environmental pressures (Wave chart that gets darker)
Stabilizing theory (natural selection)
favors the common forms of trait in a population i.e. the extremes are eliminated ex) 7lb baby
Disruptive theory
favors the extremes of the trait. i.e. intermediates are eliminated. plays a role in speciation.
____ are limiting factor in sexual selection
Females
Louis Agassiz
Harvard professor; professed the “natural inequality” of the races, even though he lacked scientific data.
Biocultural anthropology recognizes that ______
culture can influence biology
Allele
A version of a gene
Natural selection works on the genotype or phenotype?
Phenotype
