MIDTERM Flashcards
What are the implications of climate change for argan woodlands ?
- argan woodlands might be a remnant of a past, wetter and cooler climate
- It Is not impossible that climate change will eliminate the argan tree from the region over time
- Argan trees over time, general shrinking of the woodlands, prone to extinction over time
- Trend towards increasing aridity in argan woodlands
- This has already caused a decrease in density, especially on exposed slopes
- Most models show future shrinking of argania range
*Gain of suitable area – northen part may become good for argan trees
- potential shift northward- but is there space ? there is agriculture there
- in the red part, a lot of trees will die to drought
- loss of range may meand that more trees die from drought
Possible to maintain trees with irrigation
In an Oasis Agriculture, how does irrigation occur? what is another way ?
Irrigation usually occurs by flooding fields, lead a bunch of water to a plot so that the soil gets watered Drip irrigation as an effective but capital-intensive option
Define land degradation, desertification and erosion.
Land degradation: change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries
Desertification : Irreversible land degradation in drylands; when productive land turn into a desert
Erosion : Absolute soil loss in terms of topsoil and nutrients
When did the argan market emerge ? how was it portrayed ? what factors led to the argan boom ?
Emerging market: the 1990s
“Triple win” (livelihood, conservation, economic) – if you give enough money for a product, they will protect the tree the product comes from
Argan Boom from :
Moroccan scientists
Consumer demand for nice products
Cosmetics firms
Give an example of fast variable Give an example of slow variable
Fast: drought events (such as those of the 1970s and 1980s in the Sahel) Slow : the intensification of agriculture and the persistence of mobile pastoral
What are niche products ?
Examples ?
What is behind them ?
“Specialised goods and services, sold to a limited number of consumers at prices higher than those of close substitutes”
Linked to improvement in livelihood ?
Example: Argan oil , cunia fiber , civet coffee, soap nuts, murula oil, shea butter, caterpillar fungus
Behind these products are stories of livelihoods
What is the desertification narrative
Fertile lands in Romans times, covered in thick forests from Morocco to Egypt
Arab invasion led to increases in animal herds and fuelwood use, causing widespread deforestation
Since then, constant overgrazing has continued to cause progressive desertification
Therefore, the colonial state must control the land, limit grazing and plant forest
Similar to the narratives in the McCann 1999 chapter (which disproves it)
What are the 4 types of water access, give an example for each.
Permanent water source: Oasis Spatial heterogeneity: Masai Mara Temporal heterogeneity : Burkina Faso through February 2005-July 2005, vegetation drastic variation , temporal and spatial dimension Decoupling livelihoods from water: Taroudant province, Morocco, where people found ways not to rely on water
Depict economic integration of dryland in terms of pressures
Economic integration of drylands : pressures
Marginal drylands:
Low agriculture productivity low marginal productivity of labour
High climate risk
Restriction to mobility (which driving from state.. but mobility usually necessary for farming)
So people seeks options to spread risk, now more opportunities to diversify
What is the evidence of the desertification narrative
Some evidence : pollen cores
- Conflicting evidence degradation during Arab invasions (660AD)
- Local decline in some tree species and increase in erosion but increase in argan trees
- Effect of Roman Empire was stronger
- There definitely was never forest where that picture was taken
Depict colonial rule land tenure
Colonial rule (1912-1956):
Private property : expanded significantly beause of settlers
Collective lands: definition from various statuses, including kharja
State land: including all forests
Define Drylands. How much of the world do they cover up?
land areas with an aridity index (ratio between average annual precipitation and total annual potential evapotranspiration ) of less than 0.65. drylands cover about 40% of the world’s land area
Why is climate change a central topic in terms of dryland livelihood ?
- Climate shapes what people do
- strong implications of climate warming
- since drylands are defined by temperature and precipitations, their definition is up to shift
- RCP 8.5 is a pessimistic climate scenario – appearance of new drylands
- Increased aridity in most of North Africa
- Climate-induced southwards progression of the Sahara
- Increasing aridity in a good part of central Asia and southern Africa
- Strong implication into who is going to bare the burden of these changes
- “Developing” countries bares much of the expansion of drylands
What are differences in adaptive capacity of vulnerabilty ?
Differences in adaptive capacity:
- Access to livelihoods: households with migrant remittances may withstand a drought better
- Financial capital: wealthier communities can shield themselves from some hazards
- Social capital : people with social networks including wealthier or more powerful people may fare better
What is the potential Argan Commodity chains ?
The Argan Commodity chain
Private/common trees –> Local household (women crack nuts and men manages the selling of nuts) –> marketplace –> processing plants urban consumer
Tourist –> Local households
Cooperatives –> coop unions –> urban markets /tourists
How are drylands commonly represented as in terms of adaptive capacity ? what is an important consideration ? what is the debate ?
- Drylands are commonly represented as particular vulnerable and having low adaptive capacity
- Yet people in drought prone regions have long dealt with climatic variability
Debate:
- Are people in drylands “particularly vulnerable” because they live in marginal conditions ?
- Or are they “particularly resilient” because they have already developed strategies to deal with variability and droughts
- particularly exposed to climate change but not necessarily particularly vulnerable
Why do private companies , develioment agencies, and producers , engage in niche products ??
- Private companies (retailers, traders…) prospect of higher profit
- Development agencies make markets/globalization work for the poor , sometimes : conservation-friendly production, win-win and market solutions are easy to promote
- Producers prospect of increased income, diversification strategy
What does the documentary thé ou l’electricité showcase ?
- inequalites in the village (certain households not able to afford electricity, people selling their things to afford it, kids wanting it..)
- the “they’ll milk us” dynamic
- the development discourse of how electricity was going to change their lives and help them expans and grow
- all they really wanted was a road
In the context of rainfed farming , why is planting risky ?
It may not rain It may rain but not enough It may rain at the wrong time You many lose your seeds Complex decisions about when, where and how much to plant
Define ranching. What does it mean, necessitate and imply. Give an example. How does it fluctuate ?
Commercial activity production for the market Necessitates fixed sources of water, rainwater harvesting, groundwater, surface water Not always very large Example : Puestos and puesteros in Northern Argentina: fixed area around water points, small herds of goats, sheep and some cattle Herd size fluctuates with availability of water and so vegetation
What causes potential decreases in argan trees?
- Climate change
- Lack of regrowth
- Firewood and charcoal
- Goats ???
- Harvest ??? (hitting trees to make them fall= damage)
- Common understanding that customary institutions are under pressures and being lost
Why and how are drylands important ? (4)
- Home of species , ecosystems, food production, we depend of their biodiversity. •provisioning, such as the production of food and water; •regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; •supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and •cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits.
Why is there conflict with foresters ?
Conflict with foresters because they represent state imposed project
Impacts of hazards depends on their _______. what does that mean ?
nature
Durations, ex: seasonal and year long droughts
Intensity , ex: magnitude…
Frequency , ex: enough time to recover ?
It also depends on the vulnerability of people and communities to these hazards
What is the importance of pastoralism in the desertification narrative
3.Importance of pastoralism
Overgrazing and land degradation
Excessive grazing Decrease in vegetation Exposed soil Wind and water erosion
Feedback cyle (from 2 to 4)
Alternative stable states and human induced succession
Equilibrium is found
You can push it to a certain point (overgrazing, reforesting) but if you push beyond a certain point, it will fall to the other side and become desert
What is the Khettara/Qanat system?
Water led through tunnels, may come from water table, condensation or rainfall. Large tunnel with shafts for condensation.
What is the difference between vulnerabilty and resilience
Vulnerability : propensity to be affected
Resilience : ability to bounce back
depict dryland conditions and land rights. what does it imply
Spatial and temporal variability of rainfall often makes private property irrelevant Mobility is necessary Need for flexibility in definition of the rights
What is rain use effiency
Rain use efficiency: amount of vegetation produced for each unit of rainfall (aboveground biomass/rainfall)
What are nonfarm livelihoods
trade, working in construction
Did the green morrocco plan work ?
Did it work ?
Has likely had a positive impact on agricultural GDP, exports and mechanization
BUT:
Privatization of commons to satisfy demand for land
Lack of women’s participation in new initiatives
Is it a closing gap ? No definitive answer yet
What does innapropriate technology mean for smallholder as a new pressure? What is one way this has been adressed ?
- Investing in technology for small farms is not interesting for private sector:
- Small farmers don’t pay royalties
- Small farmers often produce for subsistence or local market
–> no capture of benefits in the supply chain
- Diversity of situations
- hard to scale single solutions
Chronic lack of investment from the puluc sector
Stagnant technology , farmers left out
NGOs may step in to fill the gap
- Example: ProBioma, in the Bolivian lowlands
- Soy value chains aren’t adapted for smallholders
- No alternatioves exitst to genetically modified seed package
- ProBioma develops seeds and pesticides adapted for smallholders needs
How does desertification makes sense to us ? What does that imply ?
To a lot of us the idea of the fragility of the environment of the desert is easy to extend to the idea that they are easy to detriment (through animals for example)
Conclude that animals on a dryland is not sustainable
Easy to blame the people, narrative of blaming the victims “you brought it on to yourself”
Depict 3 form of tenure
Open access [everyone as access to occupy and use land] Private property [private owner, one person has all the rights] Common property [community has right to own, control, transfer and certain members have the right to occupy and use to the resources- found under customary and religious] State property [state has right to own, control, transfer and citizens/state agency have the right to occupy and use to the resources – found under governmental institutions]
What are variations in the agdal institution ?
- Variations :
Scale : village, tribal, inter-tribal areas
Time: whole year, seasonal
Resources: forest, pastures
Users: All, or all but de facto owners
How is migration (push) is turning the social hierarchy around
Push: turning the social hierarchy around
Haratin: a marginalized ethnic group find its way out of poverty through migration to Europe
People in the most marginal villages had more incentive to migrate
Potential for changing hierarchy, because the poorest are the one who migrated and were able to benefit from migration
What does the charcoal and fuelwood extraction example depict
Colonial powers observed growing demand for fuelwood in the Sahel
Rough estimate of supply and demand in the 1980s predicted looming woodfuel gap
Fear that it would cause widespread future degradation as a result
Estimates of when shortages would happen are regularly revised
Problem : projections don’t take into account dynamics of the market
When supply decreases, prices rise, and demand decrease => scarcity can trigger transition to other energies
Observed scarcity may not be due to ecological scarcity, but to market dynamics
Change predicted based on consumption
Local consumption doesn’t fully explain woodland density change
But charcoal trade to nearby cities until 200s
You cant fully expect desertification through prediction
Not just careless locals : rent-seeking local elites driving the trade
Wealthy transporters/traders used their trucks (and political influence) to profit from charcoal trade
Use of common resource for private good
In the face of hardship, variability and risk, many dryland populations have developed resilience based on ____________________
historic and current adaptive knowledge and skills.
Define drought.
Drought
“ Deficiency of precipitation relative to what is expected that results in the inability to meet the demands of human activities and the environment”
Why are niche prodcuts so expensive ? (5 FACTORS)
Why so expensive?
More than just coffee , buying the whole story
People may be willing to pay a price premium out of/for
- Care for nature or environmental awareness
- Care for others or solidarity, including women empowerment
- Care for oneself, beauty and health
- Quality and taste
- Tradition
Depict decoupling of poverty from land in terms of opportunities
New opportunities –> possibilities of generating wealth without working the land
Opportunities to get out of poverty without fundamental changes in land tenure
major characteristic of most dryland ecosystems is ______, yet they are ________
instability incredibly resilient
What kind of pressures are small farmers exposed to today? (6)
- Increasing land scarcity
- Health and Epidemics
- Changing market demands
- Unfair competition with rich countries
- Innapropriate technology
- Environmental change
What are frictions in the context of migration
Frictions : factors that make migration harder
Border
Travel costs (especially if illegally)
Risk
Depict dust storms as a hazard ?
Dust storms can cause :
- soil erosions
- damage to vegetation by abrasion
- Health impacts (respiratory issues, bacteria and virus in dust)
- Poor visibility
Depict the weath policy
The wheat policy
Early French protectorate (1912)
Policy to favor mechanized wheat production
On new lands
By French colonists
Subsidies and preferential tariffs for export to France
“bread basket of France”
Growing pressures on the wheat policy
Inappropriate crop:
- high production costs
- period crops failure
- dependent on subsidies
Unwelcomes competition with French wheat farmers due to subsidies
depict environmental sustainability in the context of argan production ?
Environmental sustainability
No clear answer yes
Regional mapping suggests degradation author claim it is due to overharvesting
no clear sign of degradation in the north
Strong decline in the south, but not due to argan oil extraction
Depict Pivot Farming.
Pivot Agriculture: -Water typically comes from reservoirs, dams, or underground reserve -Central pivot -Water sprayed on the crop Harvesting rainwater : -Reservoir storing a lot of water -Actually a semi-permanent water supply (still relies on rains) -Dampening temporal variation
What is the difference between off-farm and non-farm livelihoods (give examples)
Non-farm livelihood activities/income : outside the agricultural sector
Off-farm livelihood activities: not on one’s farm (but could in a farm further away)
Used somewhat interchangeably
Nonfarm income in Aoulouz
Argan oil production
Construction work
Small retail
Off-farm
Bakeries
Taxi
Agricultural labour on large farms
Depict the 2 main ideas about deserfitcaiton widely held today still
2 main ideas
There is widespread desertification
Desertification is caused mostly by local over-use of natural resources
Why so little impacts Case of Aoulouz in terms of the argan oil production ?
- Limited and variable amounts of nuts
- High market price fluctuations
When there’s a lot of nuts, local prices are low, when prices are high, nuts are scare (not easy to dampen)
- Dampening role of the cooperative failed (because they are thought of by outsiders assuming women want to work together)
- High barriers of entry to export market profits go to intermediaries
Drylands are heavily affected by _____
water
What was the impact of argan oil in the north in terms of poverty reduction ?
Poverty reduction :
- In the North (more trees) :
- maybe greatest spending at the market
- More goats for those who had access to more nuts (animals as savings)
*BUT are goats a good indicator ? Stuck in a pastoralist livelihood ?
How is the Agdal regulated ?
-Regulated through:
village assembly (jmaa)
master of the agdal (amghar n ugdal)
spirits (jnoun)
What is transhumance ?
the seasonal migration of livestock between pastures, and the people who tend them, between higher and lower, or wetter and drier pastures. The household may not move, only some livestock
Depict the 1929 agricultural crisis
1929 agricultural crisis:
Drought
Locust
Global economic crisis
Aggravated by population growth
Severe wheat shortages, looming famine
The wheat policy is abandoned
Explain extraction of forest products
Exploitation products that don’t fluctuate that much, nuts, fruits, which are more frequently available
Compare Aoulouz households from 1956 to 2012 in terms of livelihoods
Aoulouz households in 1956:
Small scale farmers (majority)
Large-scale livestock breeders and landowners (10-15%)
Merchants going from village to village, trading goods (<10%)
Craftsmen, blacksmiths (few)
Aoulouz households in 2012
Farmers (Mostly livestock) (23%)
International migrants (8%) *difference of remittances
National migrants (29%)
Local entrepreneurs (40%)
What are some drought coping strategies by smallholder farmers ?
- Sold consumed more grain
- Sold more feeder animals (+++)
- Sold more breeding animals (+++)
- Sold household items (-)
- Sought increased off-farm work
- Borrowed/asked for money
- Rented in more land [income from renting or compensating for decreased yields] (+++)
- Rented out more land
What are types of institutions in the context of land tenure ?
Customary Religious Governmental
What are positives social impacts of argan oil production ?
What are negative social impacts of argan oil production ?
Some positives:
- empowered some women, particularly disadvantaged, sense of opportunity, sense of community
- More women earn an income where there is a cooperative
- May have increased girl school enrollment
- Source of pride
But also negatives:
- May have shifted argan finance towards men (from pocket money for women to household income managed by men)
- Cooperatives negatively correlated with some empowerment indicator in Perry 2018
- Intensified competition over land access
Depict the changing water distribution in Aoulouz
Changing water distribution in Aoulouz
Damn built 1988-89, diverts water to large farm
Lot of the water usually going to small-scale was now going to large scale agriculture
More water for larger citrus farm
Less for small farms
After damn construction, water only in times of surplus
No water during dam filling
Many almond and olive trees died
Development create winners and losers
What is an agricultural drought ? What does this mean ?
when water is present but not fully utilized Yields smaller than potential production
What are the temporal cycles of droughts ?
Several temporal cycles:
- Seasonal fluctuations
- Multiyear fluctuations (wet and dry spells)
- Mutli-decadal trends
What is the tragedy of the common ?
- Problem of open access - People don’t communicate or work together and max out the carrying capacity through the incentive of each heard to add - The benefit of adding a sheep goes to me, but the cost (loss of grass) is shared by everyone - If I don’t put one more sheep on the range, someone else will = incentive to add sheep - Individual users of a resource may act against the common good – under specific circumstances : open access, lack of communication , common-pool circumstances
What does increasing health and epidemics mean for smallholder as a new pressure (example)
Example: Family pushed out of agriculture by disease
- Household with 2 parents, 4 kids; 4,5ha of land, some cows and goats
- Father becomes ill (HIV/AIDS), spend most savings on healers
- 1996 father passes away, rest of money spent on funeral
- 1998 mother passes way
- Older kid (19) quits school, becomes head of household sells last animals, switches to low-labour crops and making and selling of bricks
- Lack of crop diversity leads to reduced nutrition
HIV/AIDS:
- Reduces the # of adult workers in household
- Time and capital diverted to caregiving and funerals
- Leave kids without knowledge of farming
Name 3 livelihood style in drylands and the water access they correspond to.
Irrigated farming : depends on permenant source Rainfed farming/pastroralism : manage heterogenous water availability Extraction of forest product/non-farm livelihood : decoupling livelihoods from water
Depict the policy timeline in morrocco
depict the push and pull model of migration in the context of Morrocoo
Push and Pull model of migration
Origin ——— intervening obstacles ——— Destination
Push factors : factors that encourage a person to leave
Economic conditions (important in drylands)
Environmental degradation and resource scarcity (important in drylands)
Population growth
Social issues and conflict
Social pressure
Pull factors: factors that attract a migrant to a place
Perception of economic opportunities
Perception of living conditions
mediated through friends, family, media
What does unfair competition with rich countries mean for smallholder as a new pressure
- Protectionist policies in rich countries:
- Limited access to rich countries markets (eg: strict hygiene rules)
- Subsidies to rich country farmers
- Dumping of agricultural products to poorer countries
- At the same time, pressure from rich countries to force others to open their markets
(if they were to react and “not take the cheap milk”, they could not)
What are the 3 scale of livelihood transition ? give an example for each
Scale of livelihood transition
Individual ⇒ Household ⇒Community
Individual example : From struggling poor farmer to migrant miner to entrepreneur
Household example : Inter-generational transition within a household – sons diversified livelihood
Community example : Village in the hills establishing a sister village (who each produce different products but form one single community) , transition to multi-local community , complementary livelihoods, on-going barter within this community
Depict the California dream
The California dream : drylands made into Eden
Look for alternatives ways of developing agriculture
Envoys are sent to California and are impressed
Irrigation creates wealth in desert wastelands
“California example symbolizes the modern miracle of irrigation”
Orange fields of California
Agro-ecological conditions were similar
Greater proximity to European markets
1929-1933: missions to California – espionage, technology transfer
Government invests in large irrigation plans
Creation of a marketing and export office
Citrus production takes off (1,470 to 46, 280 crops, to 1912-1956)
What is the Green Morocco Plan ? When ? What were its pillar ?
The Green Morocco Plan
Agricultural development plan that stated in 2008
Acknowledges and ties to address the dual annual of Morocco’s agriculture
Pillar 1: Strengthens commercial agriculture
Contract programs for large farmers
Aggregation of smaller farmers by larger ones
Favouring spillovers to smallholders sector
Pillar 2: Diversification and modernization of small-scale agriculture (solidary agriculture)
Coops and small farm associations
Emphasis on specialty products
Depict the migration to Moroccan cities increasing in the context mobility and de-localization of livelihoods
Migration to Moroccan cities
- Reconstruction of Agadir after earthquake in the 1960s
- Growing opportunities in other cities in the 1970s-1990s
- about 45% of households from village have left since independence
- almost all maintain a presence in the village (visits, house)
- send remittances
- Still influence the village management
What are Impacts of drought?
Cultivation : rainfed crops failure ——- > irrigated crops failure
Livestock herding : lack of fodder——- > lack of water for drinking ——- > Low market price due to over-supply (because everyone is trying to sell their animals)
Other ecosystems : low harvest of forest products ——- > Death of wild game
Human health : lack of water for sanitation ——- > Lack of water for drinking
*——- > = severity of drought
what are the 3 times livelihood transition ?
1.Trasition in normal times
Evolution along slow changing parameters (population, climate, macroeconomic changes)
2.Transition in abnormal times
Response to abrupt macro-level change (political reform, recession) between normal and crisis
3.Transition in times of crisis
Response to direct disruptions (disasters, wars)
Not all isolated, related to each other
Ex: some people move out because of crisis, these people will come back and create new changes in normal times
what does modeling study in the high atlas foothills reveal in terms of cliamte change ?
Model represents sedentary and transhumant strategies
Models predicts sedentary strategies to be more severally affected by climate change
Yet government policies mostly have favoured settlement and privatization
Depict the two-tiered system of land tenure after independence
Governmental institutions – private property– commons – state domains
Customary institutions -
What can floods result in ?
Can result in:
Property damage
Infrastructure damage
Injury and death
Loss of crops and animals
In the context of the california dream - depict the irrigation for smallholders
Irrigation for smallholders
Many dams are built to cater for citrus production
Large irrigation programs originally for colonists
Pre-existing villages , settler agriculture
BUT:
1936-37 drought turns to famine
Growing nationalist sentiments
Need of protectorate to settle people , when moving, they are hard to control
In 1938, new irrigation plan for 1,000,000 ha to “feed a growing population”
Plan involved development of small-scale irrigation for Moroccan farmers
WW2 halts development
Define Resilience in (social)-ecological systems. Why does Carr take issue with in this situation ?
Resilience Alliance definition – capacity to absorb and withstand perturbations such that the system remains within the same regime, maintaining its structure and functions”
Coming from ecology where we desire pastures to remain pastures , if you push your pastures , up to a point, it will come back to equilibrium unless you push it too far
Carr takes issue in taking with this – do we a community that always comes back to the same state always ?
A lot of talk at the UN in terms of improving the resilience but do we want people to remain stuck in systems?
What is the result of environment sustainablity concerns in terms of argan oil production ?
- As a result, NGO tries to impose “agdal-style” close
- linked to the idea of the argan woodlands as “natural” rather than managed, so needed protection from humans
- But:
- Permanent rather than seasonal closure
- Took place in mouchaa
- Initiative disrupted local management and fails after two years
Define floods (and a type of them)
Flood: overflow of water on normally dry land
Precipitation in drylands often occurs in concentrated periods
Drylands soils often don’t absorb water well
Flash Flood: flooding cause by rapidly raising water levels, due to intense rainfall, often on impervious land surface
Depict a bundle of property rights.
Bundles of property rights : Right to occupy Right to use Right to own Right to control Right to transfer
What do smallholders face
Smallholdesr face changing pressure
Historical marginalization
New forms of marginalization
what does resilience as a proprety mean ?
- USAID definition : ‘‘the ability of people, households, communities, countries, and systems to mitigate, adapt to, and recover from shocks and stresses in a manner that reduces chronic vulnerability and facilitates inclusive growth” – represents of the lot of the way in which we represent resilience
- “The ability of systems to function in the face of disturbance”
- Property of a system that conditions its ability to withstand and recover from shocks
Define pastoralism.
Pastoralism : any form of livestock raising
What differences in sensitivity to vulnerability ?
Differences in sensitivity:
- Gender: a man may not be affected by droughts as much as a women
- Access to livelihoods: people with access to diverse livelihoods may be less impacted by a hazard that affects just one
What is the difference between natural hazard and diasters ?
Natural Hazard : an event of natural phenomenon that can cause harm (threat to humans)
Disasters : significant harm caused by an hazard (= realization of the threat)
Adgal has some of the characteristics of _________. Depict them.
sustainable CPR management
- Well-defined management rules
- Egalitarian
- Recognition of property rights
- Incentives and sanctions
What is the Agdal institution ?
- temporary closure of a territory to allow resources to regenerate –> management of the common
- Found throughout Morocco
- Words refers to the closure period and to the area that is closed
What is important in policy making
Mobility, learning, and adaptability
Precisely what many customary land tenure system are designed to
Stresses importance of local knowledge
What is legal pluralism ? What could it imply ?
“legal pluralism” = history forming overlap in the intuitions Difference institutions coexist in the same space State colonial Religious Customary Leads to potential conflict
Define Nomadism
The entire household moves, are negotiating for grazing and water access in distant areas
What are the multiple layers of land tenure?
Before Islam (< 8th century )
Islamic rules (8th - 19th )
Colonial rule (1912-1956)
Post independence (1956 -present )
Define desertification. What does it imply
can take the form of soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water scarcity, altered salinity or the disruption of biological cycles System productivity is greatly limited by inherently poor soil and/or human-induced soil degradation.
What are the 4 types natural hazards ?
Geological hazards : driven by geological (earth) processes, in particular, plate tectonic (earthquakes, volcanoes)
Meteorological hazards: driven by meteorological processes, in particular, those related to temperature and wind (heat waves, cold waves, cyclones, hurricanes, and freezing rain)
Hydrological hazards : driven by hydrological (water) processes (floods, droughts, mudslides, tsunamis)
Biological hazards: driven by biological processes (infectious)
What are patterns and reason for Increasing mobility and delocalization
Patterns and reason
Recruitment for the French mines
- Labour shortages in the mines
- Recruitment of men in the Moroccan countryside starting in the 1960s
- People leave the most remove villages en masse
- Other European countries follow suit
- By 1972, an estimated 300,000 moroccans live and work in Europe
Give an example of sustainable land use in the drylands as a matter of scale.
Mongolia Survived Socialism : because collective management of the range was practised before, pastoral groups achieved a measure of adaptation. However, when private ownership was introduced in the 1990s, together with open access to profitable markets for cashmere wool, new entrants were attracted to live- stock herding who avoided transhumance in favour of clustering around fixed water points and settlements. Rangeland degra- dation is now reported.
In drylands, which right is often more important in terms of land ? what often needs to be prevalent ?
- Right to use, occupy more important than the right to own - Often, communal rights under customary institutions have been prevalent
Depict the desertification debate?
There is a debate : lots of reinterpretation , no final answer
There are fluctuation in the boundaries of the desert , long term climate variation cause this
SaheL : Wet episode followed by successive droughts
When Lamprey made his observation , it was only a snapshot, a retreat of vegetation due to extreme change in climate (from wet to dry extremes)
That decrease in precipitation is now increasing leading to retraction of sahara and re-greening
Rain use efficiency :
Primary production/precipitations
Slope of the curve on graph
A higher a slope, a higher rain use efficiency
Overtime : no decrease in Rain Use Efficiency
So the ecosystems are not getting worse at producing vegetation
Fluctuations are therefore due to climate
Significant slopes of rain use efficiency, trend in Burkina Faso in a few limited patches
Define Livelihood
The way that an individual or a household gets by. The activities, the assets, and the access that jointly determine the living gained by an individual or household
People often complement rainfed farming with _______
pastoralism
What are constraints of rainfed farming ?
Constraints (very risky): - Use drought-tolerant crops (ex: barley) - Planting under uncertainty - Often marginal areas (inaccessible, steep slopes) with no mechanization => labor intensive
What are 3 realms of increase that transform livelihood ?
Increasingly Connected
Mobile phones, transformative for pastoralists who need to move around and know where the resources are located
New jobs
Increasingly mobile
Migration within and between
Most of the increase is regional
Mobility is trivial to people’s livelihood , men often don’t live in the village
Increasingly Urban
Not only in the large cities, but also in rural areas and villages – shaping opportunities
Villages become small towns
What are new dynamics have changed some of the parameters of Agdal
attempts at formalization (of something that meant to be flexible) by the colonial state-> can lead to paralysis
new transport technology ( loophole and extra characteristics are now put under pressures because of access to trucks for example, groups are able to access lands that were previously inaccessible)
-Different uses = different outcomes in terms of the landscape
What are some consideration in terms of decoupling livelihood from land
- Decoupling does mean land doesn’t matter at all
- Here extraction is based on common and open acess land
- Land assests still predictor of material wealth in Aoulouz
- Land assets and animals can be a source of start up capital for non-farm livelihoods
What are the 4 kinds of drylands? Give an example for each
Hyper-arid (<0.05) : Edge of the Shahara Arid (0.05–0.20) : Argan woodland (small trees, dried grass) Semiarid (0.20-0.50): Dry Chaco (spiky vegetation) Dry sub humid (0.50-0.65) : Humid Chaco (more vegetation)
What differences in exposure to vulnerabilty?
Differences in Exposure:
- History : communities may end up in remote environments because they were forced out of better places (by colonizers, government, other groups)
- Class: in cities , it is often the poorest/lowest classes that live in flooded areas
- Depends on type of hazard ( ex: locust don’t puck the poor over the rich)
Ability to cope with shocks is not ________
the same for every one/ household !!
What is a recent critique of the common pool resource notion
Recent critique of the notion of “Common Pool Resource” by Vaccaro : excludability is not just an intrinsic characteristic of the resource. Resources can be more or less excludable depending on technology, etc. Calls into question that categorization
Depict the second tier of land tenure after independence
Customary institutions define:
Use rights depend on group membership
Access control is based on restriction of specific practices, ex: building shelter
Decisions are made by the jmaa, a loosely defined assembly of people
Transmission of privates rights is determined by Islamic Law
What is land tenure ?
Land tenure: set of institutions that determine who can access what bundles of property rights, and under what conditions The who can be individuals, groups or other entities Institutions are sets of rules invented by societies to regulate behaviours (ex: governmental, customary, religious)
Define vulnerabilty. What is it a function of.
-Characteristic of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard
Function of :
-exposure
- sensitivity
- adaptive capacity
Customary institutions like Agdal are in a __________. How ?
constant state of re-negotiation, often through conflict
What is an important nuance to take into account when it comes to rainfed farming ?
A desert and farmland can be located on the exact same plot of land, depending on the weather. What constitute an agricultural landscape is contingent
What are potential stressors for pastoralism in the face of cliamte change ?
what does that imply ?
Stressors :
- lack of water
- lack of forage
- heat stress
- increased disease
Potentially greater need for mobility
What is agricultural dualism ? How did this manifest in Morrocco ?
Agricultural dualism
The protectorate created a dual agricultural economy:
Modern agricultural sector in the hands of the elites
Traditional smallholders sector pushed to marginal lands
Common condition in developing countries
Marginalizing pressures on smallholders:
Land scarcity leads to over-cultivation
- Population tripled during protectorate
- Land concentration in few (French) hands
3x original local population pushed onto marginal lands
Lack of investment in rain-fed agriculture and smallholder agriculture in general
This dualism persisted into independence
Post-colonial governments (Morocco and others) have had mixed records in:
Land reforms
Agricultural extension for smallholders
In Morocco:
First, continuation of “dam policy”
Then (1980s), structural adjustment and disengenation of state from agriculture
Renewed effort to address this issue 2008 in the Green Morocco Plan
Depict the importance and implications of glaciers for dryalnds
- Includes tropical Andes, Mexico, East Africa, Indonesia.. same trend for most drylands
- Timing of peak water from glacier is important, when is the water will run out, when will the peak reverse
- 50% of glaciers at low latitudes were at peak runoff in the 2010
- water runoff will decrease from now on
- Many drylands areas rely on snow and glacier melt for irrigated agriculture
- lot of the water coming from that
- High % of production is attributable to upstream glacier and snowmelt
- Additional amount of food produced with meltwater in these plains is equivalent to the total caloric intake of 38 million people
Depict the herd effect
Herd effect:
- People factor in the observed choices of others when making their own decisions
- Emigrants have imperfect information on migration destinations
- They pay attention to the choices of previous migrants assuming that these migrants had information
Depict wildfire as a hazard
Wildfires are a natural occurrence in drylands part of natural cycle BUT worse because climate change
Consequences :
Damage to property
- live lost
- destruction of crops
What does Environmental change mean for smallholder as a new pressure?
Environmental change
- Sippel (2015): dealing with some environmental/disease problems requires access to technology
- Water table exhaustion makes water access more expensive
- disease : tomato white fly makes it necessary to cultivate under greenhouses
Depict one example of push and pull
The case of Mohammed Azoomzoom
Example OF CRAWFORD 161-2
Push :
one of the most land , and water poor household
Growing family but no land for the sons
Pull :
work in larger commercial in the sous plain
Some critiques of grazing-led desertification :
Some critiques of grazing-led desertification :
- Nebulous, all encompassing concept, difficult to provide a single measurement
- Charismatic stories often unsubstantiated
- Risk of blaming victims
- Political use of the concept to appropriate or control resources
Depict the sahara desertification speculation timeline.
1907 : European foresters in West Africa advance the idea that the Sahara progresses southwartd due to human action (colonial foresters)
1935: Stebbing, colonial foresters, says the desert advancing dues to misuse of resources, it was a threat
1975: Lamprey advances a desertification rate of 5.5km/yr based on a comparison of aerial reconnaissance in 1975 map from 1958 in Sudan
Numbers have a life of their own
Narrative of the expanding Sahara and of the causes and consequences
1989: Lamprey’s number became 17.5km/yr
1990: UN convention to combat desertification is created (35% of land surface and 1 billion people threatened)
What are the most common coping strategy ?
- Nearly 25% adjusted their land surface
- through renting in, to increase their area
- trhough renting out to get cash in
- Those who increase land area pay for it through
- animal sales
- borrowing
- Mostly those who has been involved in land markets prior to droughts
- People have coping strategy, these can be used to reinforce adaptation mechanism
What does crawford point out in terms of push and pull
Crawford : pull and push are linked. Whether people were driven out of lured out depends on the specific conditions of each household
Depict pest and plague as a hazard
- An age old problem ! Bible description of locust plague : not a green thing remained ….
- Pest= living organism causing a nuisance
Significant proportion of crops is lost pets
- Outbreaks are often unpredicatione
- Ex: Locust, Bird swarms
What are types of goods and ressources ? Give examples
Private : fruits in a private orchard
Club goods : Netflix, journal access
CPR: grass in open land, fruits on public land
Pure public good: sun, radio
Define transhumance and nomadism. What does it imply. What does it take advantage of. What does it rely on.
Transhumance and Nomadism: - Seasonal movements between lowlands and mountains - Take advantage of seasonal variations in pasture availability (ex: bringing animals to the highland where water evaporates at a slower pace when it gets very dry down there) - Movements can be long distance - Routes often cross borders - Customary agreements with farmers (from one year to the next you might not go to the same place and you might have cross some other farmer’s land)
Depict the whole history of dual agriculturalism
The wheat policy
Early French protectorate (1912)
Policy to favor mechanized wheat production
On new lands
By French colonists
Subsidies and preferential tariffs for export to France
“bread basket of France”
Growing pressures on the wheat policy
Inappropriate crop:
- high production costs
- period crops failure
- dependent on subsidies
Unwelcomes competition with French wheat farmers due to subsidies
1929 agricultural crisis:
Drought
Locust
Global economic crisis
Aggravated by population growth
Severe wheat shortages, looming famine
The wheat policy is abandoned
The California dream : drylands made into Eden
Look for alternatives ways of developing agriculture
Envoys are sent to California and are impressed
Irrigation creates wealth in desert wastelands
“California example symbolizes the modern miracle of irrigation”
Orange fields of California
Agro-ecological conditions were similar
Greater proximity to European markets
1929-1933: missions to California – espionage, technology transfer
Government invests in large irrigation plans
Creation of a marketing and export office
Citrus production takes off (1,470 to 46, 280 crops, to 1912-1956)
Irrigation for smallholders
Many dams are built to cater for citrus production
Large irrigation programs originally for colonists
Pre-existing villages , settler agriculture
BUT:
1936-37 drought turns to famine
Growing nationalist sentiments
Need of protectorate to settle people , when moving, they are hard to control
In 1938, new irrigation plan for 1,000,000 ha to “feed a growing population”
Plan involved development of small-scale irrigation for Moroccan farmers
WW2 halts development
Depict the complex system of rights to water. Give an example.
Land and water rights are often coupled: Land is useless without water Ex: Taggurt unit in Morocco= portfolio of land and water corresponding to annual requirements for one household. Each taggurt owner must provide one able bodies man for canal maintenance. Need to measure parts : system of turns. Very Intensive form of agriculture: very high labour inputs. Collective labour systems for the maintenance of canals. Exploitative structures may evolve, e.g. Haratin in Morocco. Haratin underclass own no land, yet must provide labour. Emancipation, through migration and remittances
Depict Increasing mobility and de-localization of livelihoods in Aoulouz
Increasing mobility and delocalization :
In Aoulouz
In 1956 (independence), less than 10% of the men worked outside the villages
In 2012, >65% of the men were working outside the village
What is a ranch ?
A ranch is a specific (and largely unchanging) area of landscape, given to livestock raising, with commercial objectives
Desertification makes _______
intuitive sense
Depict the traditional livelihoods narrative. What are some implications
Tempting to portray livelihoods as something that is static and traditional, as the product of a long tradition, in a way, those stories are true but livelihoods are shifting, the pure image of tradition of life in the mountains is not accurate
- Multiple pressures on smallholder farming , smallholders cannot “stay put”, cannot expect to do the same thing over and over and for it to work
- But also new opportunities
Give an example of the importance and implications of snowmelt ?
Less water from snowmelt
Saffron cultivation in the Anti-Atlas
Saffron cultivation in Morocco is both rainfed and irrigated : irrigation used when there is no rain and moslty depends on snowmelt
- Farmers note:
- increase in temperature
- decrease in rainfall
- decrease in mountain snowpacks and reduction in irrigation water
As a result they note a decrease in the saffron yield
Depict economic integration of dryland in terms of opportunities
Economic integration of drylands : opportunities
Retail, Transportation, Bakeries, Construction, Agricultural labour
Demand for urbanization [contributes to creating jobs at home like construction and so on], migrant remittances, large farms
Opportunities in greater education and training, changing needs and values, growing constaints in agriculture
Give an example of Decoupling livelihood from land
Examples :
Bashin L: local farmer
1956: Buys old truck
Benefits from increasing demand for charcoal
Hires employees in the village
1974: buys second truck
2012: had four trucks
Some of his employees have bought their own trucks
Depict before island land tenure
Before Islam (< 8th century ):
Versatile tribal organization, mostly commons
Depict Rainfed farming.
Rainfed farming - Use of spatial variability in rainfall/microclimates - Cultivating often with very rudimentary tools , which means a lot of manual work - Use of hills, shade = microvariations in the climate to produce where it makes the most sense - Stone walls for water harvesting
What is DARED? What is at stake ?
“Development of Agran orchard in degraded environment”
- 2016 Plan supported by Green Climate Fund
- Plant 10,000 ha of argan orchards throughout region
- Framed as climate change mitigation +co benefits
- Dense orchards with modern orchard management horticultural techniques , incl irrigation
- Pilot as part of pillar II of Green Morocco Plan
-All private land => no commons ? on whose land will this be ? who owns this?
- 20% of farms > 200 ha
- 30% of farms 100 ha to 200 ha
- 50% of farm < 100 ha
- Likely further shift towards orchards on private land
- Climate change as opportunity to advance a certain vision of development
What are 2 changes in transhumance. What do they imply/examples.
Times changes : political evolutions: example of Sahrawi camel herders protected for political reasons, geopolitics. This land is very important for camel owners, but previous arrangements led to an accumulation of camels that created issues. Land use change: case of the prickly pear , leading to an environment no longer compatible with camels
Define adaptive capacity as dimension of vulnerability
Adaptive capacity: Ability to act in order to mitigate harm from the hazard, also linked to person/household/community characteristics [financial, social, human capital]
Sometimes linked to the concept of resilience
Depict islamic rule land tenure
Islamic rules (8th - 19th ):
Private land : de factor (not officially by islam)
Community land of the non-muslim (kharaj)
State land : land withtout owner, abandond or confiscated land
Name 3 main questions for a policy maker
3 main questions for a policy maker
When livestock change vegetation, what kind of changes should be characterized as degredation or desertification
Change : Against what baseline
Grasslands in Africa and Europe have evolved with large ungulates
North American grasslands less so
Degradation : in terms of what ?
Change often to less palatable species, but not less biodiversity
Some wild animals require disturbance, so maintaining a climax vegetation isn’t helpful to them
Under what circumstances is livetsock grazing likely to cause changes in rangeland vegeation that could contsitutes degradation ?
- Herd members regulated by rainfall: populations crash in times of drought
- Animals recovery is slow, letting the vegetation recover
- Higher risk where precipitations are higher and more stable, allowing for higher grazing pressure
- Deserts might be more fragile when they are wetter
This breaks down with food supplementation
How can rangelands be managed to limit degradation
- Standard response : western-style rancing with rotation
- Not adapted to rangeland heterogeneity, often inefficient:
Scale of farm is not congruent with scale of hetegenoritey/patchiness
Private property is too rigid
- Alternatives:
- Track best productive areas, move herd
- Exploit, rather than suppress, rangeland heterogeneity
- Identify harmful vegetation changes
Define exposure as dimension of vulnerability
-Exposure: Degree to which a system is subjected to a natural hazard , largely a function of location and timing [is your house in a flood zone for example]
What was the impact of argan oil in the south in terms of poverty reduction ?
- In the South (less trees):
- Income from argan= 4% income on average
- About 6.5$/ day of work (half of agricultural laborer) pays something but not life changing
- No clear effect on assets
- Plays higher role for medium-asset household
- If you count the hours, women make well below the poverty line … Perry et al 2018
Depict the first tier of land tenure after independce
Private :
Mostly agricultural land
Commons:
encompasses multiple variations on tenure form :
Divided commons : can be transmitted by inheritance
Agro-pastoral community commons: for use by specific ethnic communities
Steppes and Saharan grazing lands : de facto open access
Commons go from open access to a version of private land
State Domains:
state land from previous regimes, confiscated/expropriated
What is the predominant feature of drylands? What does that imply?
Water Scarcity. traditional cultures have developed ways of finding, conserving and trans- porting water, including specialised land management techniques and structures to capture and retain precipitation, or to encourage groundwater recharge.
What are enabling conditions for sustainability on the commons (4)? Depict them.
Characteristics of the resources system
Mobility: wild animals move around, difficult to exclude others
Characteristics of the groups
Size : organization may be difficult in larger groups
Institutional arrangements
Simplicity of rules L increases likelihood that they will be understood and respected
External environments
State: govt supports/does not undermine customary institutions
Depict the potential things at stake in long term argan oil market ?
Long term economic viability of niche project depends on their scarcity ⇒ they have to be irreplaceable
What if other regions/countries start producing them ? (Argentina)
Israel
Protected geographic indication
IGP Argane created in Morocco in 2008
Asked for recognition by the European Union in 2011
Has yet to be recognized
________ play a major role in fashioning the strategies pursued by different dryland dwelling people in the face of changing economic opportunities.
Prices and markets
What is now happening to the agdal ? why ?
Livelihood changes increasingly lead to abandomenet of the agdal
Some donor agencies try to revive it
Depict pastoralism and climate change in terms of vulnerabilty/ what is at stake ?
Pastoralist have always coped with climate variability
They are probably better adapted than others
Intensifying pressures may still strain the system
What are potential snowmelt adaptations ?
Adaptations:
- Drip irrigation (with government subsidies)
- Restoration of traditional irrigation systems
- Digging of wells to access aquifer (less dependent on snowmelt)
- Delay planting (to avoid letting bulb dry out high summer temperature)
What does the agdal instituion regulate in the argan wooldans ?
In the argan woodlands : closure mostly regulates fruit access
Define sensitivity as a dimension of vulnerability
Sensitivity: degree to which a system is likely to be affected by a shock or hazard, linked to characteristics of a system (livelihood diversity) [how dependent is your livelihood dependent on nature]
Depict the progression of drought and its classification
If you have a drought – deficiency in precipitation and high temperature means you have not enough water and a lot of evaporation which leads to stresses = Meteorological drought
If this goes on- the soils dry up and stress crops and reduce yields = agricultural drought
After a while, the reservoir dries = hydrological drought
Depict the little history of argan oil in morrocco
Argan trees and argan oil
Good for livestock (goats grazing in the trees)
Tree pulp removal cracking nuts kernel pressed to extract oil oil !
Rosy pictures of tradition narrative, making it seem like it has radically changed people’s lives, conservation narrative
Use of argan oil and charcoal 10th-12th century
Probably major source of oil and fuelwood
Oil of the dryland
“Olive and argan oil have about the same value… their price is about 5 francs…” – 1885
What is an example of land regulating services ?
MEXICO ! Regulating services - 1. Climate regulation - 2. Soil fertility maintenance - 3. Flood-Control - 4. Bio-Regulation Payment for Ecosystem, or Environmental, Services (PES) is listed as one of the mechanisms that allows farmers or other owners to be paid by society for the maintenance of these services.
Different physical characteristics of hazards ?
- Oneset and end can be sudden or gradual
- Spatial scale can be large/small
- Boundaries can be clear or blurred
- Intensity may be homogenous over territory or not
What are the 3 main economic functions of drylands?
as rangelands (65% of the glo- bal drylands including deserts) as rain-fed farmland and irrigated farmland (25%) and as forest or sites for towns and cities (10%)
What does increasing changing market demands mean for smallholder as a new pressure
- Importer demand:
- Greater quality
- Greater food safety
In Sippel (2015), Hassan (case 1)
- Export market demand high quality
- Sinking water table, lack of water supply
- Decreasing quality of citrus fruit, so can’t sell on export market any more
- Smallholders sell best produce for export, rest sold on local markets
- “Smallholder upgrading”:
- Global value chains poses new challenged
- Smallholders need support in order to successfully participate in them
What does increasing land scarcity mean for smallholder as a new pressure
1.Increasing land scarcity
It can be hard to access land
Large-scale acquisitions or land grabs
These can international or national
Scarcity can come by not enough land for your kids but also by being surrounded by large farms
Increasing land scarcity
Local factors :
- Concentration of land in fewer hands
- Population growth on limited land
- growing division of land holding
- closure of the agricultural frontier (no where to go, no where to expand)
- closing the frontier in the Souss valley
- > less opportunity for growth and potential reduction in available land
Hazards have as much to do with ______ as with ______
social relations and processes
bio-geo-physical processes
What are 2 types of irrigated farming ?
Oasis agriculture , Pivot farming
What are some climate change implication in morocco (2 scenarios)
Morocco:
- Optimistic scenario: decrease of up to 10% rainfall
- Pessimistic scenario : clear decrease of at least 30% in rainfall
- Likely between the two (which will have large consequences)
Depict the netwrok effect
Network effect:
- knowing someone in the destination make it less costly and cheaper to migrate (reduce friction)
- This can influence the likelihood that a person will decide to migrate to that place
What are the two Major trends of rural transformation ?
Decoupling of poverty and livelihoods from land and farming ( livelihoods have less and less to do with farming)
Increasing mobility and de-localization of livelihoods
What are rainfall predictions in terms of climate change ?
Less rainfall- but not everywhere:
- Models agree about a strong increase in rainfall in the horn of Africa for pessimistic emissions scenario
- Whether that’s good news also depends on how the precipitations fall (ex: torrential rains)
