MIDTERM Flashcards

Question

What is the importance of pastoralism in the desertification narrative

Answer 1

3.Importance of pastoralism Overgrazing and land degradation Excessive grazing  Decrease in vegetation  Exposed soil  Wind and water erosion Feedback cyle (from 2 to 4) Alternative stable states and human induced succession Equilibrium is found You can push it to a certain point (overgrazing, reforesting) but if you push beyond a certain point, it will fall to the other side and become desert

Answer 2

Water led through tunnels, may come from water table, condensation or rainfall. Large tunnel with shafts for condensation.

Answer 3

Vulnerability : propensity to be affected Resilience : ability to bounce back

Answer 4

Spatial and temporal variability of rainfall often makes private property irrelevant Mobility is necessary Need for flexibility in definition of the rights

Answer 5

Rain use efficiency: amount of vegetation produced for each unit of rainfall (aboveground biomass/rainfall)

Answer 6

trade, working in construction

Answer 7

Did it work ? Has likely had a positive impact on agricultural GDP, exports and mechanization BUT: Privatization of commons to satisfy demand for land Lack of women’s participation in new initiatives Is it a closing gap ? No definitive answer yet

Answer 8

- Investing in technology for small farms is not interesting for private sector: - Small farmers don’t pay royalties - Small farmers often produce for subsistence or local market --\> no capture of benefits in the supply chain - Diversity of situations - hard to scale single solutions Chronic lack of investment from the puluc sector Stagnant technology , farmers left out NGOs may step in to fill the gap - Example: ProBioma, in the Bolivian lowlands - Soy value chains aren’t adapted for smallholders - No alternatioves exitst to genetically modified seed package - ProBioma develops seeds and pesticides adapted for smallholders needs

Answer 9

To a lot of us the idea of the fragility of the environment of the desert is easy to extend to the idea that they are easy to detriment (through animals for example) Conclude that animals on a dryland is not sustainable Easy to blame the people, narrative of blaming the victims “you brought it on to yourself”

Answer 10

Open access [everyone as access to occupy and use land] Private property [private owner, one person has all the rights] Common property [community has right to own, control, transfer and certain members have the right to occupy and use to the resources- found under customary and religious] State property [state has right to own, control, transfer and citizens/state agency have the right to occupy and use to the resources – found under governmental institutions]

Answer 11

- Variations : Scale : village, tribal, inter-tribal areas Time: whole year, seasonal Resources: forest, pastures Users: All, or all but de facto owners

Answer 12

Push: turning the social hierarchy around Haratin: a marginalized ethnic group find its way out of poverty through migration to Europe People in the most marginal villages had more incentive to migrate Potential for changing hierarchy, because the poorest are the one who migrated and were able to benefit from migration

Answer 13

Colonial powers observed growing demand for fuelwood in the Sahel Rough estimate of supply and demand in the 1980s predicted looming woodfuel gap Fear that it would cause widespread future degradation as a result Estimates of when shortages would happen are regularly revised Problem : projections don’t take into account dynamics of the market When supply decreases, prices rise, and demand decrease =\> scarcity can trigger transition to other energies Observed scarcity may not be due to ecological scarcity, but to market dynamics Change predicted based on consumption Local consumption doesn’t fully explain woodland density change But charcoal trade to nearby cities until 200s You cant fully expect desertification through prediction Not just careless locals : rent-seeking local elites driving the trade Wealthy transporters/traders used their trucks (and political influence) to profit from charcoal trade Use of common resource for private good

Answer 14

historic and current adaptive knowledge and skills.

Answer 15

Drought “ Deficiency of precipitation relative to what is expected that results in the inability to meet the demands of human activities and the environment”

Answer 16

Why so expensive? More than just coffee , buying the whole story People may be willing to pay a price premium out of/for - Care for nature or environmental awareness - Care for others or solidarity, including women empowerment - Care for oneself, beauty and health - Quality and taste - Tradition

Answer 17

New opportunities --\> possibilities of generating wealth without working the land Opportunities to get out of poverty without fundamental changes in land tenure

Answer 18

instability incredibly resilient

Answer 19

1. Increasing land scarcity 2. Health and Epidemics 3. Changing market demands 4. Unfair competition with rich countries 5. Innapropriate technology 6. Environmental change

Answer 20

Frictions : factors that make migration harder Border Travel costs (especially if illegally) Risk

Answer 21

Dust storms can cause : - soil erosions - damage to vegetation by abrasion - Health impacts (respiratory issues, bacteria and virus in dust) - Poor visibility

Answer 22

The wheat policy Early French protectorate (1912) Policy to favor mechanized wheat production On new lands By French colonists Subsidies and preferential tariffs for export to France “bread basket of France” Growing pressures on the wheat policy Inappropriate crop: - high production costs - period crops failure - dependent on subsidies Unwelcomes competition with French wheat farmers due to subsidies

Answer 23

Environmental sustainability No clear answer yes Regional mapping suggests degradation author claim it is due to overharvesting no clear sign of degradation in the north Strong decline in the south, but not due to argan oil extraction

Answer 24

Pivot Agriculture: -Water typically comes from reservoirs, dams, or underground reserve -Central pivot -Water sprayed on the crop Harvesting rainwater : -Reservoir storing a lot of water -Actually a semi-permanent water supply (still relies on rains) -Dampening temporal variation

Answer 25

Non-farm livelihood activities/income : outside the agricultural sector Off-farm livelihood activities: not on one’s farm (but could in a farm further away) Used somewhat interchangeably Nonfarm income in Aoulouz Argan oil production Construction work Small retail Off-farm Bakeries Taxi Agricultural labour on large farms

Answer 26

2 main ideas There is widespread desertification Desertification is caused mostly by local over-use of natural resources

Answer 27

- Limited and variable amounts of nuts - High market price fluctuations  When there’s a lot of nuts, local prices are low, when prices are high, nuts are scare (not easy to dampen) - Dampening role of the cooperative failed (because they are thought of by outsiders assuming women want to work together) - High barriers of entry to export market  profits go to intermediaries

Answer 28

Poverty reduction : - In the North (more trees) : - maybe greatest spending at the market - More goats for those who had access to more nuts (animals as savings) \*BUT are goats a good indicator ? Stuck in a pastoralist livelihood ?

Answer 29

-Regulated through: village assembly (jmaa) master of the agdal (amghar n ugdal) spirits (jnoun)

Answer 30

the seasonal migration of livestock between pastures, and the people who tend them, between higher and lower, or wetter and drier pastures. The household may not move, only some livestock

Answer 31

1929 agricultural crisis: Drought Locust Global economic crisis Aggravated by population growth Severe wheat shortages, looming famine The wheat policy is abandoned

Answer 32

Exploitation products that don’t fluctuate that much, nuts, fruits, which are more frequently available

Answer 33

Aoulouz households in 1956: Small scale farmers (majority) Large-scale livestock breeders and landowners (10-15%) Merchants going from village to village, trading goods (\<10%) Craftsmen, blacksmiths (few) Aoulouz households in 2012 Farmers (Mostly livestock) (23%) International migrants (8%) \*difference of remittances National migrants (29%) Local entrepreneurs (40%)

Answer 34

- Sold consumed more grain - Sold more feeder animals (+++) - Sold more breeding animals (+++) - Sold household items (-) - Sought increased off-farm work - Borrowed/asked for money - Rented in more land [income from renting or compensating for decreased yields] (+++) - Rented out more land

Answer 35

Customary Religious Governmental

Answer 36

Some positives: - empowered some women, particularly disadvantaged, sense of opportunity, sense of community - More women earn an income where there is a cooperative - May have increased girl school enrollment - Source of pride But also negatives: - May have shifted argan finance towards men (from pocket money for women to household income managed by men) - Cooperatives negatively correlated with some empowerment indicator in Perry 2018 - Intensified competition over land access

Answer 37

Changing water distribution in Aoulouz Damn built 1988-89, diverts water to large farm Lot of the water usually going to small-scale was now going to large scale agriculture More water for larger citrus farm Less for small farms After damn construction, water only in times of surplus No water during dam filling Many almond and olive trees died Development create winners and losers

Answer 38

when water is present but not fully utilized Yields smaller than potential production

Answer 39

Several temporal cycles: - Seasonal fluctuations - Multiyear fluctuations (wet and dry spells) - Mutli-decadal trends

Answer 40

- Problem of open access - People don’t communicate or work together and max out the carrying capacity through the incentive of each heard to add - The benefit of adding a sheep goes to me, but the cost (loss of grass) is shared by everyone - If I don’t put one more sheep on the range, someone else will = incentive to add sheep - Individual users of a resource may act against the common good – under specific circumstances : open access, lack of communication , common-pool circumstances

Answer 41

Example: Family pushed out of agriculture by disease - Household with 2 parents, 4 kids; 4,5ha of land, some cows and goats - Father becomes ill (HIV/AIDS), spend most savings on healers - 1996 father passes away, rest of money spent on funeral - 1998 mother passes way - Older kid (19) quits school, becomes head of household sells last animals, switches to low-labour crops and making and selling of bricks - Lack of crop diversity leads to reduced nutrition HIV/AIDS: - Reduces the # of adult workers in household - Time and capital diverted to caregiving and funerals - Leave kids without knowledge of farming

Answer 42

Irrigated farming : depends on permenant source Rainfed farming/pastroralism : manage heterogenous water availability Extraction of forest product/non-farm livelihood : decoupling livelihoods from water

Answer 43

Push and Pull model of migration Origin --------- intervening obstacles --------- Destination Push factors : factors that encourage a person to leave Economic conditions (important in drylands) Environmental degradation and resource scarcity (important in drylands) Population growth Social issues and conflict Social pressure Pull factors: factors that attract a migrant to a place Perception of economic opportunities Perception of living conditions mediated through friends, family, media

Answer 44

- Protectionist policies in rich countries: - Limited access to rich countries markets (eg: strict hygiene rules) - Subsidies to rich country farmers - Dumping of agricultural products to poorer countries - At the same time, pressure from rich countries to force others to open their markets (if they were to react and “not take the cheap milk”, they could not)

Answer 45

Scale of livelihood transition Individual ⇒ Household ⇒Community Individual example : From struggling poor farmer to migrant miner to entrepreneur Household example : Inter-generational transition within a household – sons diversified livelihood Community example : Village in the hills establishing a sister village (who each produce different products but form one single community) , transition to multi-local community , complementary livelihoods, on-going barter within this community

Answer 46

The California dream : drylands made into Eden Look for alternatives ways of developing agriculture Envoys are sent to California and are impressed Irrigation creates wealth in desert wastelands “California example symbolizes the modern miracle of irrigation” Orange fields of California Agro-ecological conditions were similar Greater proximity to European markets 1929-1933: missions to California – espionage, technology transfer Government invests in large irrigation plans Creation of a marketing and export office Citrus production takes off (1,470 to 46, 280 crops, to 1912-1956)

Answer 47

The Green Morocco Plan Agricultural development plan that stated in 2008 Acknowledges and ties to address the dual annual of Morocco’s agriculture Pillar 1: Strengthens commercial agriculture Contract programs for large farmers Aggregation of smaller farmers by larger ones Favouring spillovers to smallholders sector Pillar 2: Diversification and modernization of small-scale agriculture (solidary agriculture) Coops and small farm associations Emphasis on specialty products

Answer 48

Migration to Moroccan cities - Reconstruction of Agadir after earthquake in the 1960s - Growing opportunities in other cities in the 1970s-1990s - about 45% of households from village have left since independence - almost all maintain a presence in the village (visits, house) - send remittances - Still influence the village management

Answer 49

Cultivation : rainfed crops failure ------- \> irrigated crops failure Livestock herding : lack of fodder------- \> lack of water for drinking ------- \> Low market price due to over-supply (because everyone is trying to sell their animals) Other ecosystems : low harvest of forest products ------- \> Death of wild game Human health : lack of water for sanitation ------- \> Lack of water for drinking \*------- \> = severity of drought

Answer 50

1.Trasition in normal times Evolution along slow changing parameters (population, climate, macroeconomic changes) 2.Transition in abnormal times Response to abrupt macro-level change (political reform, recession) between normal and crisis 3.Transition in times of crisis Response to direct disruptions (disasters, wars) Not all isolated, related to each other Ex: some people move out because of crisis, these people will come back and create new changes in normal times

Answer 51

Model represents sedentary and transhumant strategies Models predicts sedentary strategies to be more severally affected by climate change Yet government policies mostly have favoured settlement and privatization

Answer 52

Governmental institutions – private property-- commons – state domains Customary institutions -

Answer 53

Can result in: Property damage Infrastructure damage Injury and death Loss of crops and animals

Answer 54

Irrigation for smallholders Many dams are built to cater for citrus production Large irrigation programs originally for colonists Pre-existing villages , settler agriculture BUT: 1936-37 drought turns to famine Growing nationalist sentiments Need of protectorate to settle people , when moving, they are hard to control In 1938, new irrigation plan for 1,000,000 ha to “feed a growing population” Plan involved development of small-scale irrigation for Moroccan farmers WW2 halts development

Answer 55

Resilience Alliance definition – capacity to absorb and withstand perturbations such that the system remains within the same regime, maintaining its structure and functions” Coming from ecology where we desire pastures to remain pastures , if you push your pastures , up to a point, it will come back to equilibrium unless you push it too far Carr takes issue in taking with this – do we a community that always comes back to the same state always ? A lot of talk at the UN in terms of improving the resilience but do we want people to remain stuck in systems?

Answer 56

- As a result, NGO tries to impose “agdal-style” close - linked to the idea of the argan woodlands as “natural” rather than managed, so needed protection from humans - But: - Permanent rather than seasonal closure - Took place in mouchaa - Initiative disrupted local management and fails after two years

Answer 57

Flood: overflow of water on normally dry land Precipitation in drylands often occurs in concentrated periods Drylands soils often don’t absorb water well Flash Flood: flooding cause by rapidly raising water levels, due to intense rainfall, often on impervious land surface

Answer 58

Bundles of property rights : Right to occupy Right to use Right to own Right to control Right to transfer

Answer 59

Smallholdesr face changing pressure Historical marginalization New forms of marginalization

Answer 60

- USAID definition : ‘‘the ability of people, households, communities, countries, and systems to mitigate, adapt to, and recover from shocks and stresses in a manner that reduces chronic vulnerability and facilitates inclusive growth” – represents of the lot of the way in which we represent resilience - “The ability of systems to function in the face of disturbance” - Property of a system that conditions its ability to withstand and recover from shocks

Answer 61

Pastoralism : any form of livestock raising

Answer 62

Differences in sensitivity: - Gender: a man may not be affected by droughts as much as a women - Access to livelihoods: people with access to diverse livelihoods may be less impacted by a hazard that affects just one

Answer 63

Natural Hazard : an event of natural phenomenon that can cause harm (threat to humans) Disasters : significant harm caused by an hazard (= realization of the threat)

Answer 64

sustainable CPR management - Well-defined management rules - Egalitarian - Recognition of property rights - Incentives and sanctions

Answer 65

- temporary closure of a territory to allow resources to regenerate --\> management of the common - Found throughout Morocco - Words refers to the closure period and to the area that is closed

Answer 66

Mobility, learning, and adaptability Precisely what many customary land tenure system are designed to Stresses importance of local knowledge

Answer 67

“legal pluralism” = history forming overlap in the intuitions Difference institutions coexist in the same space State colonial Religious Customary Leads to potential conflict

Answer 68

The entire household moves, are negotiating for grazing and water access in distant areas

Answer 69

Before Islam (\< 8th century ) Islamic rules (8th - 19th ) Colonial rule (1912-1956) Post independence (1956 -present )

Answer 70

can take the form of soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water scarcity, altered salinity or the disruption of biological cycles System productivity is greatly limited by inherently poor soil and/or human-induced soil degradation.

Answer 71

Geological hazards : driven by geological (earth) processes, in particular, plate tectonic (earthquakes, volcanoes) Meteorological hazards: driven by meteorological processes, in particular, those related to temperature and wind (heat waves, cold waves, cyclones, hurricanes, and freezing rain) Hydrological hazards : driven by hydrological (water) processes (floods, droughts, mudslides, tsunamis) Biological hazards: driven by biological processes (infectious)

Answer 72

Patterns and reason Recruitment for the French mines - Labour shortages in the mines - Recruitment of men in the Moroccan countryside starting in the 1960s - People leave the most remove villages en masse - Other European countries follow suit - By 1972, an estimated 300,000 moroccans live and work in Europe

Answer 73

Mongolia Survived Socialism : because collective management of the range was practised before, pastoral groups achieved a measure of adaptation. However, when private ownership was introduced in the 1990s, together with open access to profitable markets for cashmere wool, new entrants were attracted to live- stock herding who avoided transhumance in favour of clustering around fixed water points and settlements. Rangeland degra- dation is now reported.

Answer 74

- Right to use, occupy more important than the right to own - Often, communal rights under customary institutions have been prevalent

Answer 75

There is a debate : lots of reinterpretation , no final answer There are fluctuation in the boundaries of the desert , long term climate variation cause this SaheL : Wet episode followed by successive droughts When Lamprey made his observation , it was only a snapshot, a retreat of vegetation due to extreme change in climate (from wet to dry extremes) That decrease in precipitation is now increasing leading to retraction of sahara and re-greening Rain use efficiency : Primary production/precipitations Slope of the curve on graph A higher a slope, a higher rain use efficiency Overtime : no decrease in Rain Use Efficiency So the ecosystems are not getting worse at producing vegetation Fluctuations are therefore due to climate Significant slopes of rain use efficiency, trend in Burkina Faso in a few limited patches

Answer 76

The way that an individual or a household gets by. The activities, the assets, and the access that jointly determine the living gained by an individual or household

Answer 77

pastoralism

Answer 78

Constraints (very risky): - Use drought-tolerant crops (ex: barley) - Planting under uncertainty - Often marginal areas (inaccessible, steep slopes) with no mechanization =\> labor intensive

Answer 79

Increasingly Connected Mobile phones, transformative for pastoralists who need to move around and know where the resources are located New jobs Increasingly mobile Migration within and between Most of the increase is regional Mobility is trivial to people’s livelihood , men often don’t live in the village Increasingly Urban Not only in the large cities, but also in rural areas and villages – shaping opportunities Villages become small towns

Answer 80

attempts at formalization (of something that meant to be flexible) by the colonial state-\> can lead to paralysis new transport technology ( loophole and extra characteristics are now put under pressures because of access to trucks for example, groups are able to access lands that were previously inaccessible) -Different uses = different outcomes in terms of the landscape

Answer 81

- Decoupling does mean land doesn’t matter at all - Here extraction is based on common and open acess land - Land assests still predictor of material wealth in Aoulouz - Land assets and animals can be a source of start up capital for non-farm livelihoods

Answer 82

Hyper-arid (\<0.05) : Edge of the Shahara Arid (0.05–0.20) : Argan woodland (small trees, dried grass) Semiarid (0.20-0.50): Dry Chaco (spiky vegetation) Dry sub humid (0.50-0.65) : Humid Chaco (more vegetation)

Answer 83

Differences in Exposure: - History : communities may end up in remote environments because they were forced out of better places (by colonizers, government, other groups) - Class: in cities , it is often the poorest/lowest classes that live in flooded areas - Depends on type of hazard ( ex: locust don’t puck the poor over the rich)

Answer 84

the same for every one/ household !!

Answer 85

Recent critique of the notion of “Common Pool Resource” by Vaccaro : excludability is not just an intrinsic characteristic of the resource. Resources can be more or less excludable depending on technology, etc. Calls into question that categorization

Answer 86

Customary institutions define: Use rights depend on group membership Access control is based on restriction of specific practices, ex: building shelter Decisions are made by the jmaa, a loosely defined assembly of people Transmission of privates rights is determined by Islamic Law

Answer 87

Land tenure: set of institutions that determine who can access what bundles of property rights, and under what conditions The who can be individuals, groups or other entities Institutions are sets of rules invented by societies to regulate behaviours (ex: governmental, customary, religious)

Answer 88

-Characteristic of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard Function of : -exposure - sensitivity - adaptive capacity

Answer 89

constant state of re-negotiation, often through conflict

Answer 90

A desert and farmland can be located on the exact same plot of land, depending on the weather. What constitute an agricultural landscape is contingent

Answer 91

Stressors : - lack of water - lack of forage - heat stress - increased disease Potentially greater need for mobility

Answer 92

Agricultural dualism The protectorate created a dual agricultural economy: Modern agricultural sector in the hands of the elites Traditional smallholders sector pushed to marginal lands Common condition in developing countries Marginalizing pressures on smallholders: Land scarcity leads to over-cultivation - Population tripled during protectorate - Land concentration in few (French) hands 3x original local population pushed onto marginal lands Lack of investment in rain-fed agriculture and smallholder agriculture in general This dualism persisted into independence Post-colonial governments (Morocco and others) have had mixed records in: Land reforms Agricultural extension for smallholders In Morocco: First, continuation of “dam policy” Then (1980s), structural adjustment and disengenation of state from agriculture Renewed effort to address this issue 2008 in the Green Morocco Plan

Answer 93

- Includes tropical Andes, Mexico, East Africa, Indonesia.. same trend for most drylands - Timing of peak water from glacier is important, when is the water will run out, when will the peak reverse - 50% of glaciers at low latitudes were at peak runoff in the 2010 - water runoff will decrease from now on - Many drylands areas rely on snow and glacier melt for irrigated agriculture - lot of the water coming from that - High % of production is attributable to upstream glacier and snowmelt - Additional amount of food produced with meltwater in these plains is equivalent to the total caloric intake of 38 million people

Answer 94

Herd effect: - People factor in the observed choices of others when making their own decisions - Emigrants have imperfect information on migration destinations - They pay attention to the choices of previous migrants assuming that these migrants had information

Answer 95

Wildfires are a natural occurrence in drylands part of natural cycle BUT worse because climate change Consequences : Damage to property - live lost - destruction of crops

Answer 96

Environmental change - Sippel (2015): dealing with some environmental/disease problems requires access to technology - Water table exhaustion makes water access more expensive - disease : tomato white fly makes it necessary to cultivate under greenhouses

Answer 97

The case of Mohammed Azoomzoom Example OF CRAWFORD 161-2 Push : one of the most land , and water poor household Growing family but no land for the sons Pull : work in larger commercial in the sous plain

Answer 98

Some critiques of grazing-led desertification : - Nebulous, all encompassing concept, difficult to provide a single measurement - Charismatic stories often unsubstantiated - Risk of blaming victims - Political use of the concept to appropriate or control resources

Answer 99

1907 : European foresters in West Africa advance the idea that the Sahara progresses southwartd due to human action (colonial foresters) 1935: Stebbing, colonial foresters, says the desert advancing dues to misuse of resources, it was a threat 1975: Lamprey advances a desertification rate of 5.5km/yr based on a comparison of aerial reconnaissance in 1975 map from 1958 in Sudan Numbers have a life of their own Narrative of the expanding Sahara and of the causes and consequences 1989: Lamprey’s number became 17.5km/yr 1990: UN convention to combat desertification is created (35% of land surface and 1 billion people threatened)

Answer 100

- Nearly 25% adjusted their land surface - through renting in, to increase their area - trhough renting out to get cash in - Those who increase land area pay for it through - animal sales - borrowing - Mostly those who has been involved in land markets prior to droughts - People have coping strategy, these can be used to reinforce adaptation mechanism

Answer 101

Crawford : pull and push are linked. Whether people were driven out of lured out depends on the specific conditions of each household

Answer 102

- An age old problem ! Bible description of locust plague : not a green thing remained …. - Pest= living organism causing a nuisance Significant proportion of crops is lost pets - Outbreaks are often unpredicatione - Ex: Locust, Bird swarms

Answer 103

Private : fruits in a private orchard Club goods : Netflix, journal access CPR: grass in open land, fruits on public land Pure public good: sun, radio

Answer 104

Transhumance and Nomadism: - Seasonal movements between lowlands and mountains - Take advantage of seasonal variations in pasture availability (ex: bringing animals to the highland where water evaporates at a slower pace when it gets very dry down there) - Movements can be long distance - Routes often cross borders - Customary agreements with farmers (from one year to the next you might not go to the same place and you might have cross some other farmer’s land)

Answer 105

The wheat policy Early French protectorate (1912) Policy to favor mechanized wheat production On new lands By French colonists Subsidies and preferential tariffs for export to France “bread basket of France” Growing pressures on the wheat policy Inappropriate crop: - high production costs - period crops failure - dependent on subsidies Unwelcomes competition with French wheat farmers due to subsidies 1929 agricultural crisis: Drought Locust Global economic crisis Aggravated by population growth Severe wheat shortages, looming famine The wheat policy is abandoned The California dream : drylands made into Eden Look for alternatives ways of developing agriculture Envoys are sent to California and are impressed Irrigation creates wealth in desert wastelands “California example symbolizes the modern miracle of irrigation” Orange fields of California Agro-ecological conditions were similar Greater proximity to European markets 1929-1933: missions to California – espionage, technology transfer Government invests in large irrigation plans Creation of a marketing and export office Citrus production takes off (1,470 to 46, 280 crops, to 1912-1956) Irrigation for smallholders Many dams are built to cater for citrus production Large irrigation programs originally for colonists Pre-existing villages , settler agriculture BUT: 1936-37 drought turns to famine Growing nationalist sentiments Need of protectorate to settle people , when moving, they are hard to control In 1938, new irrigation plan for 1,000,000 ha to “feed a growing population” Plan involved development of small-scale irrigation for Moroccan farmers WW2 halts development

Answer 106

Land and water rights are often coupled: Land is useless without water Ex: Taggurt unit in Morocco= portfolio of land and water corresponding to annual requirements for one household. Each taggurt owner must provide one able bodies man for canal maintenance. Need to measure parts : system of turns. Very Intensive form of agriculture: very high labour inputs. Collective labour systems for the maintenance of canals. Exploitative structures may evolve, e.g. Haratin in Morocco. Haratin underclass own no land, yet must provide labour. Emancipation, through migration and remittances

Answer 107

Increasing mobility and delocalization : In Aoulouz In 1956 (independence), less than 10% of the men worked outside the villages In 2012, \>65% of the men were working outside the village

Answer 108

A ranch is a specific (and largely unchanging) area of landscape, given to livestock raising, with commercial objectives

Answer 109

intuitive sense

Answer 110

Tempting to portray livelihoods as something that is static and traditional, as the product of a long tradition, in a way, those stories are true but livelihoods are shifting, the pure image of tradition of life in the mountains is not accurate - Multiple pressures on smallholder farming , smallholders cannot “stay put”, cannot expect to do the same thing over and over and for it to work - But also new opportunities

Answer 111

Less water from snowmelt Saffron cultivation in the Anti-Atlas Saffron cultivation in Morocco is both rainfed and irrigated : irrigation used when there is no rain and moslty depends on snowmelt - Farmers note: - increase in temperature - decrease in rainfall - decrease in mountain snowpacks and reduction in irrigation water As a result they note a decrease in the saffron yield

Answer 112

Economic integration of drylands : opportunities Retail, Transportation, Bakeries, Construction, Agricultural labour Demand for urbanization [contributes to creating jobs at home like construction and so on], migrant remittances, large farms Opportunities in greater education and training, changing needs and values, growing constaints in agriculture

Answer 113

Examples : Bashin L: local farmer 1956: Buys old truck Benefits from increasing demand for charcoal Hires employees in the village 1974: buys second truck 2012: had four trucks Some of his employees have bought their own trucks

Answer 114

Before Islam (\< 8th century ): Versatile tribal organization, mostly commons

Answer 115

Rainfed farming - Use of spatial variability in rainfall/microclimates - Cultivating often with very rudimentary tools , which means a lot of manual work - Use of hills, shade = microvariations in the climate to produce where it makes the most sense - Stone walls for water harvesting

Answer 116

“Development of Agran orchard in degraded environment" - 2016 Plan supported by Green Climate Fund - Plant 10,000 ha of argan orchards throughout region - Framed as climate change mitigation +co benefits - Dense orchards with modern orchard management horticultural techniques , incl irrigation - Pilot as part of pillar II of Green Morocco Plan **-All private land =\> no commons ? on whose land will this be ? who owns this?** - 20% of farms \> 200 ha - 30% of farms 100 ha to 200 ha - 50% of farm \< 100 ha - Likely further shift towards orchards on private land - Climate change as opportunity to advance a certain vision of development

Answer 117

Times changes : political evolutions: example of Sahrawi camel herders protected for political reasons, geopolitics. This land is very important for camel owners, but previous arrangements led to an accumulation of camels that created issues. Land use change: case of the prickly pear , leading to an environment no longer compatible with camels

Answer 118

Adaptive capacity: Ability to act in order to mitigate harm from the hazard, also linked to person/household/community characteristics [financial, social, human capital] Sometimes linked to the concept of resilience

Answer 119

Islamic rules (8th - 19th ): Private land : de factor (not officially by islam) Community land of the non-muslim (kharaj) State land : land withtout owner, abandond or confiscated land

Answer 120

3 main questions for a policy maker _When livestock change vegetation, what kind of changes should be characterized as degredation or desertification_ Change : Against what baseline Grasslands in Africa and Europe have evolved with large ungulates North American grasslands less so Degradation : in terms of what ? Change often to less palatable species, but not less biodiversity Some wild animals require disturbance, so maintaining a climax vegetation isn’t helpful to them _Under what circumstances is livetsock grazing likely to cause changes in rangeland vegeation that could contsitutes degradation ?_ - Herd members regulated by rainfall: populations crash in times of drought - Animals recovery is slow, letting the vegetation recover - Higher risk where precipitations are higher and more stable, allowing for higher grazing pressure - Deserts might be more fragile when they are wetter This breaks down with food supplementation _How can rangelands be managed to limit degradation_ - Standard response : western-style rancing with rotation - Not adapted to rangeland heterogeneity, often inefficient: Scale of farm is not congruent with scale of hetegenoritey/patchiness Private property is too rigid - Alternatives: - Track best productive areas, move herd - Exploit, rather than suppress, rangeland heterogeneity - Identify harmful vegetation changes

Answer 121

-Exposure: Degree to which a system is subjected to a natural hazard , largely a function of location and timing [is your house in a flood zone for example]

Answer 122

- In the South (less trees): - Income from argan= 4% income on average - About 6.5$/ day of work (half of agricultural laborer) pays something but not life changing - No clear effect on assets - Plays higher role for medium-asset household - If you count the hours, women make well below the poverty line … Perry et al 2018

Answer 123

**Private :** Mostly agricultural land **Commons:** encompasses multiple variations on tenure form : Divided commons : can be transmitted by inheritance Agro-pastoral community commons: for use by specific ethnic communities Steppes and Saharan grazing lands : de facto open access Commons go from open access to a version of private land **State Domains:** state land from previous regimes, confiscated/expropriated

Answer 124

Water Scarcity. traditional cultures have developed ways of finding, conserving and trans- porting water, including specialised land management techniques and structures to capture and retain precipitation, or to encourage groundwater recharge.

Answer 125

Characteristics of the resources system Mobility: wild animals move around, difficult to exclude others Characteristics of the groups Size : organization may be difficult in larger groups Institutional arrangements Simplicity of rules L increases likelihood that they will be understood and respected External environments State: govt supports/does not undermine customary institutions

Answer 126

Long term economic viability of niche project depends on their scarcity ⇒ they have to be irreplaceable What if other regions/countries start producing them ? (Argentina) Israel Protected geographic indication IGP Argane created in Morocco in 2008 Asked for recognition by the European Union in 2011 Has yet to be recognized

Answer 127

Prices and markets

Answer 128

Livelihood changes increasingly lead to abandomenet of the agdal Some donor agencies try to revive it

Answer 129

Pastoralist have always coped with climate variability They are probably better adapted than others Intensifying pressures may still strain the system

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Adaptations: - Drip irrigation (with government subsidies) - Restoration of traditional irrigation systems - Digging of wells to access aquifer (less dependent on snowmelt) - Delay planting (to avoid letting bulb dry out high summer temperature)

Answer 131

In the argan woodlands : closure mostly regulates fruit access

Answer 132

Sensitivity: degree to which a system is likely to be affected by a shock or hazard, linked to characteristics of a system (livelihood diversity) [how dependent is your livelihood dependent on nature]

Answer 133

If you have a drought – deficiency in precipitation and high temperature means you have not enough water and a lot of evaporation which leads to stresses = **Meteorological drought** If this goes on- the soils dry up and stress crops and reduce yields = **agricultural drought** After a while, the reservoir dries = **hydrological drought**

Answer 134

Argan trees and argan oil Good for livestock (goats grazing in the trees) Tree  pulp removal cracking nuts  kernel  pressed to extract oil  oil ! Rosy pictures of tradition narrative, making it seem like it has radically changed people’s lives, conservation narrative Use of argan oil and charcoal 10th-12th century Probably major source of oil and fuelwood Oil of the dryland “Olive and argan oil have about the same value… their price is about 5 francs…” – 1885

Answer 135

MEXICO ! Regulating services - 1. Climate regulation - 2. Soil fertility maintenance - 3. Flood-Control - 4. Bio-Regulation Payment for Ecosystem, or Environmental, Services (PES) is listed as one of the mechanisms that allows farmers or other owners to be paid by society for the maintenance of these services.

Answer 136

- Oneset and end can be sudden or gradual - Spatial scale can be large/small - Boundaries can be clear or blurred - Intensity may be homogenous over territory or not

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as rangelands (65% of the glo- bal drylands including deserts) as rain-fed farmland and irrigated farmland (25%) and as forest or sites for towns and cities (10%)

Answer 138

- Importer demand: - Greater quality - Greater food safety In Sippel (2015), Hassan (case 1) - Export market demand high quality - Sinking water table, lack of water supply - Decreasing quality of citrus fruit, so can’t sell on export market any more - Smallholders sell best produce for export, rest sold on local markets - “Smallholder upgrading”: - Global value chains poses new challenged - Smallholders need support in order to successfully participate in them

Answer 139

1.Increasing land scarcity It can be hard to access land Large-scale acquisitions or land grabs These can international or national Scarcity can come by not enough land for your kids but also by being surrounded by large farms Increasing land scarcity Local factors : - Concentration of land in fewer hands - Population growth on limited land - growing division of land holding - closure of the agricultural frontier (no where to go, no where to expand) - closing the frontier in the Souss valley - \> less opportunity for growth and potential reduction in available land

Answer 140

social relations and processes bio-geo-physical processes

Answer 141

Oasis agriculture , Pivot farming

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Morocco: - Optimistic scenario: decrease of up to 10% rainfall - Pessimistic scenario : clear decrease of at least 30% in rainfall - Likely between the two (which will have large consequences)

Answer 143

Network effect: - knowing someone in the destination make it less costly and cheaper to migrate (reduce friction) - This can influence the likelihood that a person will decide to migrate to that place

Answer 144

Decoupling of poverty and livelihoods from land and farming ( livelihoods have less and less to do with farming) Increasing mobility and de-localization of livelihoods

Answer 145

Less rainfall- but not everywhere: - Models agree about a strong increase in rainfall in the horn of Africa for pessimistic emissions scenario - Whether that’s good news also depends on how the precipitations fall (ex: torrential rains)

MIDTERM Flashcards

(173 cards)