MIDTERM

Question 1

What are the implications of climate change for argan woodlands ?

Answer 1

• argan woodlands might be a remnant of a past, wetter and cooler climate
• It Is not impossible that climate change will eliminate the argan tree from the region over time
• Argan trees over time, general shrinking of the woodlands, prone to extinction over time
• Trend towards increasing aridity in argan woodlands
• This has already caused a decrease in density, especially on exposed slopes
• Most models show future shrinking of argania range

*Gain of suitable area – northen part may become good for argan trees

• potential shift northward- but is there space ? there is agriculture there
• in the red part, a lot of trees will die to drought
• loss of range may meand that more trees die from drought

Possible to maintain trees with irrigation

Question 2

In an Oasis Agriculture, how does irrigation occur? what is another way ?

Answer 2

Irrigation usually occurs by flooding fields, lead a bunch of water to a plot so that the soil gets watered Drip irrigation as an effective but capital-intensive option

Question 3

Define land degradation, desertification and erosion.

Answer 3

Land degradation: change in the soil health status resulting in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services for its beneficiaries

Desertification : Irreversible land degradation in drylands; when productive land turn into a desert

Erosion : Absolute soil loss in terms of topsoil and nutrients

Question 4

When did the argan market emerge ? how was it portrayed ? what factors led to the argan boom ?

Answer 4

Emerging market: the 1990s

“Triple win” (livelihood, conservation, economic) – if you give enough money for a product, they will protect the tree the product comes from

Argan Boom from :

Moroccan scientists

Consumer demand for nice products

Cosmetics firms

Question 5

Give an example of fast variable Give an example of slow variable

Answer 5

Fast: drought events (such as those of the 1970s and 1980s in the Sahel) Slow : the intensification of agriculture and the persistence of mobile pastoral

Question 6

What are niche products ?

Examples ?

What is behind them ?

Answer 6

“Specialised goods and services, sold to a limited number of consumers at prices higher than those of close substitutes”

Linked to improvement in livelihood ?

Example: Argan oil , cunia fiber , civet coffee, soap nuts, murula oil, shea butter, caterpillar fungus

Behind these products are stories of livelihoods

Question 7

What is the desertification narrative

Answer 7

Fertile lands in Romans times, covered in thick forests from Morocco to Egypt

Arab invasion led to increases in animal herds and fuelwood use, causing widespread deforestation

Since then, constant overgrazing has continued to cause progressive desertification

Therefore, the colonial state must control the land, limit grazing and plant forest

Similar to the narratives in the McCann 1999 chapter (which disproves it)

Question 8

What are the 4 types of water access, give an example for each.

Answer 8

Permanent water source: Oasis Spatial heterogeneity: Masai Mara Temporal heterogeneity : Burkina Faso through February 2005-July 2005, vegetation drastic variation , temporal and spatial dimension Decoupling livelihoods from water: Taroudant province, Morocco, where people found ways not to rely on water

Question 9

Depict economic integration of dryland in terms of pressures

Answer 9

Economic integration of drylands : pressures

Marginal drylands:

Low agriculture productivity  low marginal productivity of labour

High climate risk

Restriction to mobility (which driving from state.. but mobility usually necessary for farming)

So people seeks options to spread risk, now more opportunities to diversify

Question 10

What is the evidence of the desertification narrative

Answer 10

Some evidence : pollen cores

• Conflicting evidence degradation during Arab invasions (660AD)
• Local decline in some tree species and increase in erosion but increase in argan trees
• Effect of Roman Empire was stronger
• There definitely was never forest where that picture was taken

Question 11

Depict colonial rule land tenure

Answer 11

Colonial rule (1912-1956):

Private property : expanded significantly beause of settlers

Collective lands: definition from various statuses, including kharja

State land: including all forests

Question 12

Define Drylands. How much of the world do they cover up?

Answer 12

land areas with an aridity index (ratio between average annual precipitation and total annual potential evapotranspiration ) of less than 0.65. drylands cover about 40% of the world’s land area

Question 13

Why is climate change a central topic in terms of dryland livelihood ?

Answer 13

• Climate shapes what people do
• strong implications of climate warming
• since drylands are defined by temperature and precipitations, their definition is up to shift
• RCP 8.5 is a pessimistic climate scenario – appearance of new drylands
• Increased aridity in most of North Africa
• Climate-induced southwards progression of the Sahara
• Increasing aridity in a good part of central Asia and southern Africa
• Strong implication into who is going to bare the burden of these changes
• “Developing” countries bares much of the expansion of drylands

Question 14

What are differences in adaptive capacity of vulnerabilty ?

Answer 14

Differences in adaptive capacity:

• Access to livelihoods: households with migrant remittances may withstand a drought better
• Financial capital: wealthier communities can shield themselves from some hazards
• Social capital : people with social networks including wealthier or more powerful people may fare better

Question 15

What is the potential Argan Commodity chains ?

Answer 15

The Argan Commodity chain

Private/common trees –> Local household (women crack nuts and men manages the selling of nuts) –> marketplace –> processing plants  urban consumer

Tourist –> Local households

Cooperatives –> coop unions –> urban markets /tourists

Question 16

How are drylands commonly represented as in terms of adaptive capacity ? what is an important consideration ? what is the debate ?

Answer 16

• Drylands are commonly represented as particular vulnerable and having low adaptive capacity
• Yet people in drought prone regions have long dealt with climatic variability

Debate:

• Are people in drylands “particularly vulnerable” because they live in marginal conditions ?
• Or are they “particularly resilient” because they have already developed strategies to deal with variability and droughts
• particularly exposed to climate change but not necessarily particularly vulnerable

Question 17

Why do private companies , develioment agencies, and producers , engage in niche products ??

Answer 17

• Private companies (retailers, traders…) prospect of higher profit
• Development agencies  make markets/globalization work for the poor , sometimes : conservation-friendly production, win-win and market solutions are easy to promote
• Producers  prospect of increased income, diversification strategy

Question 18

What does the documentary thé ou l’electricité showcase ?

Answer 18

• inequalites in the village (certain households not able to afford electricity, people selling their things to afford it, kids wanting it..)
• the “they’ll milk us” dynamic
• the development discourse of how electricity was going to change their lives and help them expans and grow
• all they really wanted was a road

Question 19

In the context of rainfed farming , why is planting risky ?

Answer 19

It may not rain It may rain but not enough It may rain at the wrong time You many lose your seeds Complex decisions about when, where and how much to plant

Question 20

Define ranching. What does it mean, necessitate and imply. Give an example. How does it fluctuate ?

Answer 20

Commercial activity production for the market Necessitates fixed sources of water, rainwater harvesting, groundwater, surface water Not always very large Example : Puestos and puesteros in Northern Argentina: fixed area around water points, small herds of goats, sheep and some cattle Herd size fluctuates with availability of water and so vegetation

Question 21

What causes potential decreases in argan trees?

Answer 21

• Climate change
• Lack of regrowth
• Firewood and charcoal
• Goats ???
• Harvest ??? (hitting trees to make them fall= damage)
• Common understanding that customary institutions are under pressures and being lost

Question 22

Why and how are drylands important ? (4)

Answer 22

• Home of species , ecosystems, food production, we depend of their biodiversity. •provisioning, such as the production of food and water; •regulating, such as the control of climate and disease; •supporting, such as nutrient cycles and crop pollination; and •cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits.

Question 23

Why is there conflict with foresters ?

Answer 23

Conflict with foresters because they represent state imposed project

Question 24

Impacts of hazards depends on their _______. what does that mean ?

Answer 24

nature

Durations, ex: seasonal and year long droughts

Intensity , ex: magnitude…

Frequency , ex: enough time to recover ?

It also depends on the vulnerability of people and communities to these hazards

Question 25

What is the importance of pastoralism in the desertification narrative

Answer 25

3.Importance of pastoralism

Overgrazing and land degradation

Excessive grazing  Decrease in vegetation  Exposed soil  Wind and water erosion

Feedback cyle (from 2 to 4)

Alternative stable states and human induced succession

Equilibrium is found

You can push it to a certain point (overgrazing, reforesting) but if you push beyond a certain point, it will fall to the other side and become desert

Question 26

What is the Khettara/Qanat system?

Answer 26

Water led through tunnels, may come from water table, condensation or rainfall. Large tunnel with shafts for condensation.

Question 27

What is the difference between vulnerabilty and resilience

Answer 27

Vulnerability : propensity to be affected

Resilience : ability to bounce back

Question 28

depict dryland conditions and land rights. what does it imply

Answer 28

Spatial and temporal variability of rainfall often makes private property irrelevant Mobility is necessary Need for flexibility in definition of the rights

Question 29

What is rain use effiency

Answer 29

Rain use efficiency: amount of vegetation produced for each unit of rainfall (aboveground biomass/rainfall)

Question 30

What are nonfarm livelihoods

Answer 30

trade, working in construction

Question 31

Did the green morrocco plan work ?

Answer 31

Did it work ?

Has likely had a positive impact on agricultural GDP, exports and mechanization

BUT:

Privatization of commons to satisfy demand for land

Lack of women’s participation in new initiatives

Is it a closing gap ? No definitive answer yet

Question 32

What does innapropriate technology mean for smallholder as a new pressure? What is one way this has been adressed ?

Answer 32

• Investing in technology for small farms is not interesting for private sector:
• Small farmers don’t pay royalties
• Small farmers often produce for subsistence or local market

–> no capture of benefits in the supply chain

• Diversity of situations
• hard to scale single solutions

Chronic lack of investment from the puluc sector

Stagnant technology , farmers left out

NGOs may step in to fill the gap

• Example: ProBioma, in the Bolivian lowlands
• Soy value chains aren’t adapted for smallholders
• No alternatioves exitst to genetically modified seed package
• ProBioma develops seeds and pesticides adapted for smallholders needs

Question 33

How does desertification makes sense to us ? What does that imply ?

Answer 33

To a lot of us the idea of the fragility of the environment of the desert is easy to extend to the idea that they are easy to detriment (through animals for example)

Conclude that animals on a dryland is not sustainable

Easy to blame the people, narrative of blaming the victims “you brought it on to yourself”

Question 34

Depict 3 form of tenure

Answer 34

Open access [everyone as access to occupy and use land] Private property [private owner, one person has all the rights] Common property [community has right to own, control, transfer and certain members have the right to occupy and use to the resources- found under customary and religious] State property [state has right to own, control, transfer and citizens/state agency have the right to occupy and use to the resources – found under governmental institutions]

Question 35

What are variations in the agdal institution ?

Answer 35

• Variations :

Scale : village, tribal, inter-tribal areas

Time: whole year, seasonal

Resources: forest, pastures

Users: All, or all but de facto owners

Question 36

How is migration (push) is turning the social hierarchy around

Answer 36

Push: turning the social hierarchy around

Haratin: a marginalized ethnic group find its way out of poverty through migration to Europe

People in the most marginal villages had more incentive to migrate

Potential for changing hierarchy, because the poorest are the one who migrated and were able to benefit from migration

Question 37

What does the charcoal and fuelwood extraction example depict

Answer 37

Colonial powers observed growing demand for fuelwood in the Sahel

Rough estimate of supply and demand in the 1980s predicted looming woodfuel gap

Fear that it would cause widespread future degradation as a result

Estimates of when shortages would happen are regularly revised

Problem : projections don’t take into account dynamics of the market

When supply decreases, prices rise, and demand decrease => scarcity can trigger transition to other energies

Observed scarcity may not be due to ecological scarcity, but to market dynamics

Change predicted based on consumption

Local consumption doesn’t fully explain woodland density change

But charcoal trade to nearby cities until 200s

You cant fully expect desertification through prediction

Not just careless locals : rent-seeking local elites driving the trade

Wealthy transporters/traders used their trucks (and political influence) to profit from charcoal trade

Use of common resource for private good

Question 38

In the face of hardship, variability and risk, many dryland populations have developed resilience based on ____________________

Answer 38

historic and current adaptive knowledge and skills.

Question 39

Define drought.

Answer 39

Drought

“ Deficiency of precipitation relative to what is expected that results in the inability to meet the demands of human activities and the environment”

Question 40

Why are niche prodcuts so expensive ? (5 FACTORS)

Answer 40

Why so expensive?

More than just coffee , buying the whole story

People may be willing to pay a price premium out of/for

• Care for nature or environmental awareness
• Care for others or solidarity, including women empowerment
• Care for oneself, beauty and health
• Quality and taste
• Tradition

Question 41

Depict decoupling of poverty from land in terms of opportunities

Answer 41

New opportunities –> possibilities of generating wealth without working the land

Opportunities to get out of poverty without fundamental changes in land tenure

Question 42

major characteristic of most dryland ecosystems is ______, yet they are ________

Answer 42

instability incredibly resilient

Question 43

What kind of pressures are small farmers exposed to today? (6)

Answer 43

1. Increasing land scarcity
2. Health and Epidemics
3. Changing market demands
4. Unfair competition with rich countries
5. Innapropriate technology
6. Environmental change

Question 44

What are frictions in the context of migration

Answer 44

Frictions : factors that make migration harder

Border

Travel costs (especially if illegally)

Risk

Question 45

Depict dust storms as a hazard ?

Answer 45

Dust storms can cause :

• soil erosions
• damage to vegetation by abrasion
• Health impacts (respiratory issues, bacteria and virus in dust)
• Poor visibility

Question 46

Depict the weath policy

Answer 46

The wheat policy

Early French protectorate (1912)

Policy to favor mechanized wheat production

On new lands

By French colonists

Subsidies and preferential tariffs for export to France

“bread basket of France”

Growing pressures on the wheat policy

Inappropriate crop:

• high production costs
• period crops failure
• dependent on subsidies

Unwelcomes competition with French wheat farmers due to subsidies

Question 47

depict environmental sustainability in the context of argan production ?

Answer 47

Environmental sustainability

No clear answer yes

Regional mapping suggests degradation author claim it is due to overharvesting

no clear sign of degradation in the north

Strong decline in the south, but not due to argan oil extraction

Question 48

Depict Pivot Farming.

Answer 48

Pivot Agriculture: -Water typically comes from reservoirs, dams, or underground reserve -Central pivot -Water sprayed on the crop Harvesting rainwater : -Reservoir storing a lot of water -Actually a semi-permanent water supply (still relies on rains) -Dampening temporal variation

Question 49

What is the difference between off-farm and non-farm livelihoods (give examples)

Answer 49

Non-farm livelihood activities/income : outside the agricultural sector

Off-farm livelihood activities: not on one’s farm (but could in a farm further away)

Used somewhat interchangeably

Nonfarm income in Aoulouz

Argan oil production

Construction work

Small retail

Off-farm

Bakeries

Taxi

Agricultural labour on large farms

Question 50

Depict the 2 main ideas about deserfitcaiton widely held today still

Answer 50

2 main ideas

There is widespread desertification

Desertification is caused mostly by local over-use of natural resources

Question 51

Why so little impacts Case of Aoulouz in terms of the argan oil production ?

Answer 51

• Limited and variable amounts of nuts
• High market price fluctuations

 When there’s a lot of nuts, local prices are low, when prices are high, nuts are scare (not easy to dampen)

• Dampening role of the cooperative failed (because they are thought of by outsiders assuming women want to work together)
• High barriers of entry to export market  profits go to intermediaries

Question 52

Drylands are heavily affected by _____

Answer 52

water

Question 53

What was the impact of argan oil in the north in terms of poverty reduction ?

Answer 53

Poverty reduction :

• In the North (more trees) :
• maybe greatest spending at the market
• More goats for those who had access to more nuts (animals as savings)

*BUT are goats a good indicator ? Stuck in a pastoralist livelihood ?

Question 54

How is the Agdal regulated ?

Answer 54

-Regulated through:

village assembly (jmaa)

master of the agdal (amghar n ugdal)

spirits (jnoun)

Question 55

What is transhumance ?

Answer 55

the seasonal migration of livestock between pastures, and the people who tend them, between higher and lower, or wetter and drier pastures. The household may not move, only some livestock

Question 56

Depict the 1929 agricultural crisis

Answer 56

1929 agricultural crisis:

Drought

Locust

Global economic crisis

Aggravated by population growth

Severe wheat shortages, looming famine

The wheat policy is abandoned

Question 57

Explain extraction of forest products

Answer 57

Exploitation products that don’t fluctuate that much, nuts, fruits, which are more frequently available

Question 58

Compare Aoulouz households from 1956 to 2012 in terms of livelihoods

Answer 58

Aoulouz households in 1956:

Small scale farmers (majority)

Large-scale livestock breeders and landowners (10-15%)

Merchants going from village to village, trading goods (<10%)

Craftsmen, blacksmiths (few)

Aoulouz households in 2012

Farmers (Mostly livestock) (23%)

International migrants (8%) *difference of remittances

National migrants (29%)

Local entrepreneurs (40%)

Question 59

What are some drought coping strategies by smallholder farmers ?

Answer 59

• Sold consumed more grain
• Sold more feeder animals (+++)
• Sold more breeding animals (+++)
• Sold household items (-)
• Sought increased off-farm work
• Borrowed/asked for money
• Rented in more land [income from renting or compensating for decreased yields] (+++)
• Rented out more land

Question 60

What are types of institutions in the context of land tenure ?

Answer 60

Customary Religious Governmental

Question 61

What are positives social impacts of argan oil production ?

What are negative social impacts of argan oil production ?

Answer 61

Some positives:

• empowered some women, particularly disadvantaged, sense of opportunity, sense of community
• More women earn an income where there is a cooperative
• May have increased girl school enrollment
• Source of pride

But also negatives:

• May have shifted argan finance towards men (from pocket money for women to household income managed by men)
• Cooperatives negatively correlated with some empowerment indicator in Perry 2018
• Intensified competition over land access

Question 63

Depict the changing water distribution in Aoulouz

Answer 63

Changing water distribution in Aoulouz

Damn built 1988-89, diverts water to large farm

Lot of the water usually going to small-scale was now going to large scale agriculture

More water for larger citrus farm

Less for small farms

After damn construction, water only in times of surplus

No water during dam filling

Many almond and olive trees died

Development create winners and losers

Question 64

What is an agricultural drought ? What does this mean ?

Answer 64

when water is present but not fully utilized Yields smaller than potential production

Question 65

What are the temporal cycles of droughts ?

Answer 65

Several temporal cycles:

• Seasonal fluctuations
• Multiyear fluctuations (wet and dry spells)
• Mutli-decadal trends

Question 66

What is the tragedy of the common ?

Answer 66

• Problem of open access - People don’t communicate or work together and max out the carrying capacity through the incentive of each heard to add - The benefit of adding a sheep goes to me, but the cost (loss of grass) is shared by everyone - If I don’t put one more sheep on the range, someone else will = incentive to add sheep - Individual users of a resource may act against the common good – under specific circumstances : open access, lack of communication , common-pool circumstances

Question 67

What does increasing health and epidemics mean for smallholder as a new pressure (example)

Answer 67

Example: Family pushed out of agriculture by disease

• Household with 2 parents, 4 kids; 4,5ha of land, some cows and goats
• Father becomes ill (HIV/AIDS), spend most savings on healers
• 1996 father passes away, rest of money spent on funeral
• 1998 mother passes way
• Older kid (19) quits school, becomes head of household sells last animals, switches to low-labour crops and making and selling of bricks
• Lack of crop diversity leads to reduced nutrition

HIV/AIDS:

• Reduces the # of adult workers in household
• Time and capital diverted to caregiving and funerals
• Leave kids without knowledge of farming

Question 68

Name 3 livelihood style in drylands and the water access they correspond to.

Answer 68

Irrigated farming : depends on permenant source Rainfed farming/pastroralism : manage heterogenous water availability Extraction of forest product/non-farm livelihood : decoupling livelihoods from water

Question 69

Depict the policy timeline in morrocco

Answer 69

Question 70

depict the push and pull model of migration in the context of Morrocoo

Answer 70

Push and Pull model of migration

Origin ——— intervening obstacles ——— Destination

Push factors : factors that encourage a person to leave

Economic conditions (important in drylands)

Environmental degradation and resource scarcity (important in drylands)

Population growth

Social issues and conflict

Social pressure

Pull factors: factors that attract a migrant to a place

Perception of economic opportunities

Perception of living conditions

mediated through friends, family, media

Question 71

What does unfair competition with rich countries mean for smallholder as a new pressure

Answer 71

• Protectionist policies in rich countries:
• Limited access to rich countries markets (eg: strict hygiene rules)
• Subsidies to rich country farmers
• Dumping of agricultural products to poorer countries
• At the same time, pressure from rich countries to force others to open their markets

(if they were to react and “not take the cheap milk”, they could not)

Question 72

What are the 3 scale of livelihood transition ? give an example for each

Answer 72

Scale of livelihood transition

Individual ⇒ Household ⇒Community

Individual example : From struggling poor farmer to migrant miner to entrepreneur

Household example : Inter-generational transition within a household – sons diversified livelihood

Community example : Village in the hills establishing a sister village (who each produce different products but form one single community) , transition to multi-local community , complementary livelihoods, on-going barter within this community

Question 73

Depict the California dream

Answer 73

The California dream : drylands made into Eden

Look for alternatives ways of developing agriculture

Envoys are sent to California and are impressed

Irrigation creates wealth in desert wastelands

“California example symbolizes the modern miracle of irrigation”

Orange fields of California

Agro-ecological conditions were similar

Greater proximity to European markets

1929-1933: missions to California – espionage, technology transfer

Government invests in large irrigation plans

Creation of a marketing and export office

Citrus production takes off (1,470 to 46, 280 crops, to 1912-1956)

Question 74

What is the Green Morocco Plan ? When ? What were its pillar ?

Answer 74

The Green Morocco Plan

Agricultural development plan that stated in 2008

Acknowledges and ties to address the dual annual of Morocco’s agriculture

Pillar 1: Strengthens commercial agriculture

Contract programs for large farmers

Aggregation of smaller farmers by larger ones

Favouring spillovers to smallholders sector

Pillar 2: Diversification and modernization of small-scale agriculture (solidary agriculture)

Coops and small farm associations

Emphasis on specialty products

Question 75

Depict the migration to Moroccan cities increasing in the context mobility and de-localization of livelihoods

Answer 75

Migration to Moroccan cities

• Reconstruction of Agadir after earthquake in the 1960s
• Growing opportunities in other cities in the 1970s-1990s
• about 45% of households from village have left since independence
• almost all maintain a presence in the village (visits, house)
• send remittances
• Still influence the village management

Question 76

What are Impacts of drought?

Answer 76

Cultivation : rainfed crops failure ——- > irrigated crops failure

Livestock herding : lack of fodder——- > lack of water for drinking ——- > Low market price due to over-supply (because everyone is trying to sell their animals)

Other ecosystems : low harvest of forest products ——- > Death of wild game

Human health : lack of water for sanitation ——- > Lack of water for drinking

*——- > = severity of drought

Question 77

what are the 3 times livelihood transition ?

Answer 77

1.Trasition in normal times

Evolution along slow changing parameters (population, climate, macroeconomic changes)

2.Transition in abnormal times

Response to abrupt macro-level change (political reform, recession) between normal and crisis

3.Transition in times of crisis

Response to direct disruptions (disasters, wars)

Not all isolated, related to each other

Ex: some people move out because of crisis, these people will come back and create new changes in normal times

Question 78

what does modeling study in the high atlas foothills reveal in terms of cliamte change ?

Answer 78

Model represents sedentary and transhumant strategies

Models predicts sedentary strategies to be more severally affected by climate change

Yet government policies mostly have favoured settlement and privatization

Question 79

Depict the two-tiered system of land tenure after independence

Answer 79

Governmental institutions – private property– commons – state domains

Customary institutions -

Question 80

What can floods result in ?

Answer 80

Can result in:

Property damage

Infrastructure damage

Injury and death

Loss of crops and animals

Question 81

In the context of the california dream - depict the irrigation for smallholders

Answer 81

Irrigation for smallholders

Many dams are built to cater for citrus production

Large irrigation programs originally for colonists

Pre-existing villages , settler agriculture

BUT:

1936-37 drought turns to famine

Growing nationalist sentiments

Need of protectorate to settle people , when moving, they are hard to control

In 1938, new irrigation plan for 1,000,000 ha to “feed a growing population”

Plan involved development of small-scale irrigation for Moroccan farmers

WW2 halts development

Question 82

Define Resilience in (social)-ecological systems. Why does Carr take issue with in this situation ?

Answer 82

Resilience Alliance definition – capacity to absorb and withstand perturbations such that the system remains within the same regime, maintaining its structure and functions”

Coming from ecology where we desire pastures to remain pastures , if you push your pastures , up to a point, it will come back to equilibrium unless you push it too far

Carr takes issue in taking with this – do we a community that always comes back to the same state always ?

A lot of talk at the UN in terms of improving the resilience but do we want people to remain stuck in systems?

Question 83

What is the result of environment sustainablity concerns in terms of argan oil production ?

Answer 83

• As a result, NGO tries to impose “agdal-style” close
• linked to the idea of the argan woodlands as “natural” rather than managed, so needed protection from humans
• But:
• Permanent rather than seasonal closure
• Took place in mouchaa
• Initiative disrupted local management and fails after two years

Question 84

Define floods (and a type of them)

Answer 84

Flood: overflow of water on normally dry land

Precipitation in drylands often occurs in concentrated periods

Drylands soils often don’t absorb water well

Flash Flood: flooding cause by rapidly raising water levels, due to intense rainfall, often on impervious land surface

Question 85

Depict a bundle of property rights.

Answer 85

Bundles of property rights : Right to occupy Right to use Right to own Right to control Right to transfer

Question 86

What do smallholders face

Answer 86

Smallholdesr face changing pressure

Historical marginalization

New forms of marginalization

Question 87

what does resilience as a proprety mean ?

Answer 87

• USAID definition : ‘‘the ability of people, households, communities, countries, and systems to mitigate, adapt to, and recover from shocks and stresses in a manner that reduces chronic vulnerability and facilitates inclusive growth” – represents of the lot of the way in which we represent resilience
• “The ability of systems to function in the face of disturbance”
• Property of a system that conditions its ability to withstand and recover from shocks

Question 88

Define pastoralism.

Answer 88

Pastoralism : any form of livestock raising

Question 89

What differences in sensitivity to vulnerability ?

Answer 89

Differences in sensitivity:

• Gender: a man may not be affected by droughts as much as a women
• Access to livelihoods: people with access to diverse livelihoods may be less impacted by a hazard that affects just one

Question 90

What is the difference between natural hazard and diasters ?

Answer 90

Natural Hazard : an event of natural phenomenon that can cause harm (threat to humans)

Disasters : significant harm caused by an hazard (= realization of the threat)

Question 91

Adgal has some of the characteristics of _________. Depict them.

Answer 91

sustainable CPR management

• Well-defined management rules
• Egalitarian
• Recognition of property rights
• Incentives and sanctions

Question 92

What is the Agdal institution ?

Answer 92

• temporary closure of a territory to allow resources to regenerate –> management of the common
• Found throughout Morocco
• Words refers to the closure period and to the area that is closed

Question 93

What is important in policy making

Answer 93

Mobility, learning, and adaptability

Precisely what many customary land tenure system are designed to

Stresses importance of local knowledge

Question 94

What is legal pluralism ? What could it imply ?

Answer 94

“legal pluralism” = history forming overlap in the intuitions Difference institutions coexist in the same space State colonial Religious Customary Leads to potential conflict

Question 95

Define Nomadism

Answer 95

The entire household moves, are negotiating for grazing and water access in distant areas

Question 96

What are the multiple layers of land tenure?

Answer 96

Before Islam (< 8th century )

Islamic rules (8th - 19th )

Colonial rule (1912-1956)

Post independence (1956 -present )

Question 97

Define desertification. What does it imply

Answer 97

can take the form of soil erosion, nutrient depletion, water scarcity, altered salinity or the disruption of biological cycles System productivity is greatly limited by inherently poor soil and/or human-induced soil degradation.

Question 98

What are the 4 types natural hazards ?

Answer 98

Geological hazards : driven by geological (earth) processes, in particular, plate tectonic (earthquakes, volcanoes)

Meteorological hazards: driven by meteorological processes, in particular, those related to temperature and wind (heat waves, cold waves, cyclones, hurricanes, and freezing rain)

Hydrological hazards : driven by hydrological (water) processes (floods, droughts, mudslides, tsunamis)

Biological hazards: driven by biological processes (infectious)

Question 99

What are patterns and reason for Increasing mobility and delocalization

Answer 99

Patterns and reason

Recruitment for the French mines

• Labour shortages in the mines
• Recruitment of men in the Moroccan countryside starting in the 1960s
• People leave the most remove villages en masse
• Other European countries follow suit
• By 1972, an estimated 300,000 moroccans live and work in Europe

Question 100

Give an example of sustainable land use in the drylands as a matter of scale.

Answer 100

Mongolia Survived Socialism : because collective management of the range was practised before, pastoral groups achieved a measure of adaptation. However, when private ownership was introduced in the 1990s, together with open access to profitable markets for cashmere wool, new entrants were attracted to live- stock herding who avoided transhumance in favour of clustering around fixed water points and settlements. Rangeland degra- dation is now reported.

Question 101

In drylands, which right is often more important in terms of land ? what often needs to be prevalent ?

Answer 101

• Right to use, occupy more important than the right to own - Often, communal rights under customary institutions have been prevalent

Question 102

Depict the desertification debate?

Answer 102

There is a debate : lots of reinterpretation , no final answer

There are fluctuation in the boundaries of the desert , long term climate variation cause this

SaheL : Wet episode followed by successive droughts

When Lamprey made his observation , it was only a snapshot, a retreat of vegetation due to extreme change in climate (from wet to dry extremes)

That decrease in precipitation is now increasing leading to retraction of sahara and re-greening

Rain use efficiency :

Primary production/precipitations

Slope of the curve on graph

A higher a slope, a higher rain use efficiency

Overtime : no decrease in Rain Use Efficiency

So the ecosystems are not getting worse at producing vegetation

Fluctuations are therefore due to climate

Significant slopes of rain use efficiency, trend in Burkina Faso in a few limited patches

Question 103

Define Livelihood

Answer 103

The way that an individual or a household gets by. The activities, the assets, and the access that jointly determine the living gained by an individual or household

Question 104

People often complement rainfed farming with _______

Answer 104

pastoralism

Question 105

What are constraints of rainfed farming ?

Answer 105

Constraints (very risky): - Use drought-tolerant crops (ex: barley) - Planting under uncertainty - Often marginal areas (inaccessible, steep slopes) with no mechanization => labor intensive

Question 107

What are 3 realms of increase that transform livelihood ?

Answer 107

Increasingly Connected

Mobile phones, transformative for pastoralists who need to move around and know where the resources are located

New jobs

Increasingly mobile

Migration within and between

Most of the increase is regional

Mobility is trivial to people’s livelihood , men often don’t live in the village

Increasingly Urban

Not only in the large cities, but also in rural areas and villages – shaping opportunities

Villages become small towns

Question 108

What are new dynamics have changed some of the parameters of Agdal

Answer 108

attempts at formalization (of something that meant to be flexible) by the colonial state-> can lead to paralysis

new transport technology ( loophole and extra characteristics are now put under pressures because of access to trucks for example, groups are able to access lands that were previously inaccessible)

-Different uses = different outcomes in terms of the landscape

Question 109

What are some consideration in terms of decoupling livelihood from land

Answer 109

• Decoupling does mean land doesn’t matter at all
• Here extraction is based on common and open acess land
• Land assests still predictor of material wealth in Aoulouz
• Land assets and animals can be a source of start up capital for non-farm livelihoods

Question 110

What are the 4 kinds of drylands? Give an example for each

Answer 110

Hyper-arid (<0.05) : Edge of the Shahara Arid (0.05–0.20) : Argan woodland (small trees, dried grass) Semiarid (0.20-0.50): Dry Chaco (spiky vegetation) Dry sub humid (0.50-0.65) : Humid Chaco (more vegetation)

Question 111

What differences in exposure to vulnerabilty?

Answer 111

Differences in Exposure:

• History : communities may end up in remote environments because they were forced out of better places (by colonizers, government, other groups)
• Class: in cities , it is often the poorest/lowest classes that live in flooded areas
• Depends on type of hazard ( ex: locust don’t puck the poor over the rich)

Question 112

Ability to cope with shocks is not ________

Answer 112

the same for every one/ household !!

Question 113

What is a recent critique of the common pool resource notion

Answer 113

Recent critique of the notion of “Common Pool Resource” by Vaccaro : excludability is not just an intrinsic characteristic of the resource. Resources can be more or less excludable depending on technology, etc. Calls into question that categorization

Question 114

Depict the second tier of land tenure after independence

Answer 114

Customary institutions define:

Use rights depend on group membership

Access control is based on restriction of specific practices, ex: building shelter

Decisions are made by the jmaa, a loosely defined assembly of people

Transmission of privates rights is determined by Islamic Law

Question 115

What is land tenure ?

Answer 115

Land tenure: set of institutions that determine who can access what bundles of property rights, and under what conditions The who can be individuals, groups or other entities Institutions are sets of rules invented by societies to regulate behaviours (ex: governmental, customary, religious)

Question 116

Define vulnerabilty. What is it a function of.

Answer 116

-Characteristic of a person or group in terms of their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural hazard

Function of :
-exposure

• sensitivity
• adaptive capacity

Question 117

Customary institutions like Agdal are in a __________. How ?

Answer 117

constant state of re-negotiation, often through conflict

Question 118

What is an important nuance to take into account when it comes to rainfed farming ?

Answer 118

A desert and farmland can be located on the exact same plot of land, depending on the weather. What constitute an agricultural landscape is contingent

Question 119

What are potential stressors for pastoralism in the face of cliamte change ?

what does that imply ?

Answer 119

Stressors :

• lack of water
• lack of forage
• heat stress
• increased disease

Potentially greater need for mobility

Question 120

What is agricultural dualism ? How did this manifest in Morrocco ?

Answer 120

Agricultural dualism

The protectorate created a dual agricultural economy:

Modern agricultural sector in the hands of the elites

Traditional smallholders sector pushed to marginal lands

Common condition in developing countries

Marginalizing pressures on smallholders:

Land scarcity leads to over-cultivation

• Population tripled during protectorate
• Land concentration in few (French) hands

3x original local population pushed onto marginal lands

Lack of investment in rain-fed agriculture and smallholder agriculture in general

This dualism persisted into independence

Post-colonial governments (Morocco and others) have had mixed records in:

Land reforms

Agricultural extension for smallholders

In Morocco:

First, continuation of “dam policy”

Then (1980s), structural adjustment and disengenation of state from agriculture

Renewed effort to address this issue 2008 in the Green Morocco Plan

Question 121

Depict the importance and implications of glaciers for dryalnds

Answer 121

• Includes tropical Andes, Mexico, East Africa, Indonesia.. same trend for most drylands
• Timing of peak water from glacier is important, when is the water will run out, when will the peak reverse
• 50% of glaciers at low latitudes were at peak runoff in the 2010
• water runoff will decrease from now on
• Many drylands areas rely on snow and glacier melt for irrigated agriculture
• lot of the water coming from that
• High % of production is attributable to upstream glacier and snowmelt
• Additional amount of food produced with meltwater in these plains is equivalent to the total caloric intake of 38 million people

Question 122

Depict the herd effect

Answer 122

Herd effect:

• People factor in the observed choices of others when making their own decisions
• Emigrants have imperfect information on migration destinations
• They pay attention to the choices of previous migrants assuming that these migrants had information

Question 123

Depict wildfire as a hazard

Answer 123

Wildfires are a natural occurrence in drylands part of natural cycle BUT worse because climate change

Consequences :

Damage to property

• live lost
• destruction of crops

Question 124

What does Environmental change mean for smallholder as a new pressure?

Answer 124

Environmental change

• Sippel (2015): dealing with some environmental/disease problems requires access to technology
• Water table exhaustion makes water access more expensive
• disease : tomato white fly makes it necessary to cultivate under greenhouses

Question 125

Depict one example of push and pull

Answer 125

The case of Mohammed Azoomzoom

Example OF CRAWFORD 161-2

Push :

one of the most land , and water poor household

Growing family but no land for the sons

Pull :

work in larger commercial in the sous plain

Question 126

Some critiques of grazing-led desertification :

Answer 126

Some critiques of grazing-led desertification :

• Nebulous, all encompassing concept, difficult to provide a single measurement
• Charismatic stories often unsubstantiated
• Risk of blaming victims
• Political use of the concept to appropriate or control resources

Question 127

Depict the sahara desertification speculation timeline.

Answer 127

1907 : European foresters in West Africa advance the idea that the Sahara progresses southwartd due to human action (colonial foresters)

1935: Stebbing, colonial foresters, says the desert advancing dues to misuse of resources, it was a threat
1975: Lamprey advances a desertification rate of 5.5km/yr based on a comparison of aerial reconnaissance in 1975 map from 1958 in Sudan

Numbers have a life of their own

Narrative of the expanding Sahara and of the causes and consequences

1989: Lamprey’s number became 17.5km/yr
1990: UN convention to combat desertification is created (35% of land surface and 1 billion people threatened)

Question 128

What are the most common coping strategy ?

Answer 128

• Nearly 25% adjusted their land surface
• through renting in, to increase their area
• trhough renting out to get cash in
• Those who increase land area pay for it through
• animal sales
• borrowing
• Mostly those who has been involved in land markets prior to droughts
• People have coping strategy, these can be used to reinforce adaptation mechanism

Question 129

What does crawford point out in terms of push and pull

Answer 129

Crawford : pull and push are linked. Whether people were driven out of lured out depends on the specific conditions of each household

Question 130

Depict pest and plague as a hazard

Answer 130

• An age old problem ! Bible description of locust plague : not a green thing remained ….
• Pest= living organism causing a nuisance

Significant proportion of crops is lost pets

• Outbreaks are often unpredicatione
• Ex: Locust, Bird swarms

Question 131

What are types of goods and ressources ? Give examples

Answer 131

Private : fruits in a private orchard

Club goods : Netflix, journal access

CPR: grass in open land, fruits on public land

Pure public good: sun, radio

Question 132

Define transhumance and nomadism. What does it imply. What does it take advantage of. What does it rely on.

Answer 132

Transhumance and Nomadism: - Seasonal movements between lowlands and mountains - Take advantage of seasonal variations in pasture availability (ex: bringing animals to the highland where water evaporates at a slower pace when it gets very dry down there) - Movements can be long distance - Routes often cross borders - Customary agreements with farmers (from one year to the next you might not go to the same place and you might have cross some other farmer’s land)

Question 133

Depict the whole history of dual agriculturalism

Answer 133

The wheat policy

Early French protectorate (1912)

Policy to favor mechanized wheat production

On new lands

By French colonists

Subsidies and preferential tariffs for export to France

“bread basket of France”

Growing pressures on the wheat policy

Inappropriate crop:

• high production costs
• period crops failure
• dependent on subsidies

Unwelcomes competition with French wheat farmers due to subsidies

1929 agricultural crisis:

Drought

Locust

Global economic crisis

Aggravated by population growth

Severe wheat shortages, looming famine

The wheat policy is abandoned

The California dream : drylands made into Eden

Look for alternatives ways of developing agriculture

Envoys are sent to California and are impressed

Irrigation creates wealth in desert wastelands

“California example symbolizes the modern miracle of irrigation”

Orange fields of California

Agro-ecological conditions were similar

Greater proximity to European markets

1929-1933: missions to California – espionage, technology transfer

Government invests in large irrigation plans

Creation of a marketing and export office

Citrus production takes off (1,470 to 46, 280 crops, to 1912-1956)

Irrigation for smallholders

Many dams are built to cater for citrus production

Large irrigation programs originally for colonists

Pre-existing villages , settler agriculture

BUT:

1936-37 drought turns to famine

Growing nationalist sentiments

Need of protectorate to settle people , when moving, they are hard to control

In 1938, new irrigation plan for 1,000,000 ha to “feed a growing population”

Plan involved development of small-scale irrigation for Moroccan farmers

WW2 halts development

Question 134

Depict the complex system of rights to water. Give an example.

Answer 134

Land and water rights are often coupled: Land is useless without water Ex: Taggurt unit in Morocco= portfolio of land and water corresponding to annual requirements for one household. Each taggurt owner must provide one able bodies man for canal maintenance. Need to measure parts : system of turns. Very Intensive form of agriculture: very high labour inputs. Collective labour systems for the maintenance of canals. Exploitative structures may evolve, e.g. Haratin in Morocco. Haratin underclass own no land, yet must provide labour. Emancipation, through migration and remittances

Question 135

Depict Increasing mobility and de-localization of livelihoods in Aoulouz

Answer 135

Increasing mobility and delocalization :

In Aoulouz

In 1956 (independence), less than 10% of the men worked outside the villages

In 2012, >65% of the men were working outside the village

Question 136

What is a ranch ?

Answer 136

A ranch is a specific (and largely unchanging) area of landscape, given to livestock raising, with commercial objectives

Question 137

Desertification makes _______

Answer 137

intuitive sense

Question 138

Depict the traditional livelihoods narrative. What are some implications

Answer 138

Tempting to portray livelihoods as something that is static and traditional, as the product of a long tradition, in a way, those stories are true but livelihoods are shifting, the pure image of tradition of life in the mountains is not accurate

• Multiple pressures on smallholder farming , smallholders cannot “stay put”, cannot expect to do the same thing over and over and for it to work
• But also new opportunities

Question 139

Give an example of the importance and implications of snowmelt ?

Answer 139

Less water from snowmelt

Saffron cultivation in the Anti-Atlas

Saffron cultivation in Morocco is both rainfed and irrigated : irrigation used when there is no rain and moslty depends on snowmelt

• Farmers note:
• increase in temperature
• decrease in rainfall
• decrease in mountain snowpacks and reduction in irrigation water

As a result they note a decrease in the saffron yield

Question 140

Depict economic integration of dryland in terms of opportunities

Answer 140

Economic integration of drylands : opportunities

Retail, Transportation, Bakeries, Construction, Agricultural labour

Demand for urbanization [contributes to creating jobs at home like construction and so on], migrant remittances, large farms

Opportunities in greater education and training, changing needs and values, growing constaints in agriculture

Question 141

Give an example of Decoupling livelihood from land

Answer 141

Examples :

Bashin L: local farmer

1956: Buys old truck

Benefits from increasing demand for charcoal

Hires employees in the village

1974: buys second truck
2012: had four trucks

Some of his employees have bought their own trucks

Question 142

Depict before island land tenure

Answer 142

Before Islam (< 8th century ):

Versatile tribal organization, mostly commons

Question 143

Depict Rainfed farming.

Answer 143

Rainfed farming - Use of spatial variability in rainfall/microclimates - Cultivating often with very rudimentary tools , which means a lot of manual work - Use of hills, shade = microvariations in the climate to produce where it makes the most sense - Stone walls for water harvesting

Question 144

What is DARED? What is at stake ?

Answer 144

“Development of Agran orchard in degraded environment”

• 2016 Plan supported by Green Climate Fund
• Plant 10,000 ha of argan orchards throughout region
• Framed as climate change mitigation +co benefits
• Dense orchards with modern orchard management horticultural techniques , incl irrigation
• Pilot as part of pillar II of Green Morocco Plan

-All private land => no commons ? on whose land will this be ? who owns this?

• 20% of farms > 200 ha
• 30% of farms 100 ha to 200 ha
• 50% of farm < 100 ha
• Likely further shift towards orchards on private land
• Climate change as opportunity to advance a certain vision of development

Question 145

What are 2 changes in transhumance. What do they imply/examples.

Answer 145

Times changes : political evolutions: example of Sahrawi camel herders protected for political reasons, geopolitics. This land is very important for camel owners, but previous arrangements led to an accumulation of camels that created issues. Land use change: case of the prickly pear , leading to an environment no longer compatible with camels

Question 146

Define adaptive capacity as dimension of vulnerability

Answer 146

Adaptive capacity: Ability to act in order to mitigate harm from the hazard, also linked to person/household/community characteristics [financial, social, human capital]

Sometimes linked to the concept of resilience

Question 147

Depict islamic rule land tenure

Answer 147

Islamic rules (8th - 19th ):

Private land : de factor (not officially by islam)

Community land of the non-muslim (kharaj)

State land : land withtout owner, abandond or confiscated land

Question 148

Name 3 main questions for a policy maker

Answer 148

3 main questions for a policy maker

When livestock change vegetation, what kind of changes should be characterized as degredation or desertification

Change : Against what baseline

Grasslands in Africa and Europe have evolved with large ungulates

North American grasslands less so

Degradation : in terms of what ?

Change often to less palatable species, but not less biodiversity

Some wild animals require disturbance, so maintaining a climax vegetation isn’t helpful to them

Under what circumstances is livetsock grazing likely to cause changes in rangeland vegeation that could contsitutes degradation ?

• Herd members regulated by rainfall: populations crash in times of drought
• Animals recovery is slow, letting the vegetation recover
• Higher risk where precipitations are higher and more stable, allowing for higher grazing pressure
• Deserts might be more fragile when they are wetter

This breaks down with food supplementation

How can rangelands be managed to limit degradation

• Standard response : western-style rancing with rotation
• Not adapted to rangeland heterogeneity, often inefficient:

Scale of farm is not congruent with scale of hetegenoritey/patchiness

Private property is too rigid

• Alternatives:
• Track best productive areas, move herd
• Exploit, rather than suppress, rangeland heterogeneity
• Identify harmful vegetation changes

Question 149

Define exposure as dimension of vulnerability

Answer 149

-Exposure: Degree to which a system is subjected to a natural hazard , largely a function of location and timing [is your house in a flood zone for example]

Question 150

What was the impact of argan oil in the south in terms of poverty reduction ?

Answer 150

• In the South (less trees):
• Income from argan= 4% income on average
• About 6.5$/ day of work (half of agricultural laborer) pays something but not life changing
• No clear effect on assets
• Plays higher role for medium-asset household
• If you count the hours, women make well below the poverty line … Perry et al 2018

Question 151

Depict the first tier of land tenure after independce

Answer 151

Private :

Mostly agricultural land

Commons:

encompasses multiple variations on tenure form :

Divided commons : can be transmitted by inheritance

Agro-pastoral community commons: for use by specific ethnic communities

Steppes and Saharan grazing lands : de facto open access

Commons go from open access to a version of private land

State Domains:

state land from previous regimes, confiscated/expropriated

Question 152

What is the predominant feature of drylands? What does that imply?

Answer 152

Water Scarcity. traditional cultures have developed ways of finding, conserving and trans- porting water, including specialised land management techniques and structures to capture and retain precipitation, or to encourage groundwater recharge.

Question 153

What are enabling conditions for sustainability on the commons (4)? Depict them.

Answer 153

Characteristics of the resources system

Mobility: wild animals move around, difficult to exclude others

Characteristics of the groups

Size : organization may be difficult in larger groups

Institutional arrangements

Simplicity of rules L increases likelihood that they will be understood and respected

External environments

State: govt supports/does not undermine customary institutions

Question 154

Depict the potential things at stake in long term argan oil market ?

Answer 154

Long term economic viability of niche project depends on their scarcity ⇒ they have to be irreplaceable

What if other regions/countries start producing them ? (Argentina)

Israel

Protected geographic indication

IGP Argane created in Morocco in 2008

Asked for recognition by the European Union in 2011

Has yet to be recognized

Question 155

________ play a major role in fashioning the strategies pursued by different dryland dwelling people in the face of changing economic opportunities.

Answer 155

Prices and markets

Question 156

What is now happening to the agdal ? why ?

Answer 156

Livelihood changes increasingly lead to abandomenet of the agdal

Some donor agencies try to revive it

Question 157

Depict pastoralism and climate change in terms of vulnerabilty/ what is at stake ?

Answer 157

Pastoralist have always coped with climate variability

They are probably better adapted than others

Intensifying pressures may still strain the system

Question 158

What are potential snowmelt adaptations ?

Answer 158

Adaptations:

• Drip irrigation (with government subsidies)
• Restoration of traditional irrigation systems
• Digging of wells to access aquifer (less dependent on snowmelt)
• Delay planting (to avoid letting bulb dry out high summer temperature)

Question 159

What does the agdal instituion regulate in the argan wooldans ?

Answer 159

In the argan woodlands : closure mostly regulates fruit access

Question 160

Define sensitivity as a dimension of vulnerability

Answer 160

Sensitivity: degree to which a system is likely to be affected by a shock or hazard, linked to characteristics of a system (livelihood diversity) [how dependent is your livelihood dependent on nature]

Question 161

Depict the progression of drought and its classification

Answer 161

If you have a drought – deficiency in precipitation and high temperature means you have not enough water and a lot of evaporation which leads to stresses = Meteorological drought

If this goes on- the soils dry up and stress crops and reduce yields = agricultural drought

After a while, the reservoir dries = hydrological drought

Question 162

Depict the little history of argan oil in morrocco

Answer 162

Argan trees and argan oil

Good for livestock (goats grazing in the trees)

Tree  pulp removal cracking nuts  kernel  pressed to extract oil  oil !

Rosy pictures of tradition narrative, making it seem like it has radically changed people’s lives, conservation narrative

Use of argan oil and charcoal 10th-12th century

Probably major source of oil and fuelwood

Oil of the dryland

“Olive and argan oil have about the same value… their price is about 5 francs…” – 1885

Question 163

What is an example of land regulating services ?

Answer 163

MEXICO ! Regulating services - 1. Climate regulation - 2. Soil fertility maintenance - 3. Flood-Control - 4. Bio-Regulation Payment for Ecosystem, or Environmental, Services (PES) is listed as one of the mechanisms that allows farmers or other owners to be paid by society for the maintenance of these services.

Question 164

Different physical characteristics of hazards ?

Answer 164

• Oneset and end can be sudden or gradual
• Spatial scale can be large/small
• Boundaries can be clear or blurred
• Intensity may be homogenous over territory or not

Question 165

What are the 3 main economic functions of drylands?

Answer 165

as rangelands (65% of the glo- bal drylands including deserts) as rain-fed farmland and irrigated farmland (25%) and as forest or sites for towns and cities (10%)

Question 166

What does increasing changing market demands mean for smallholder as a new pressure

Answer 166

• Importer demand:
• Greater quality
• Greater food safety

In Sippel (2015), Hassan (case 1)

• Export market demand high quality
• Sinking water table, lack of water supply
• Decreasing quality of citrus fruit, so can’t sell on export market any more
• Smallholders sell best produce for export, rest sold on local markets
• “Smallholder upgrading”:
• Global value chains poses new challenged
• Smallholders need support in order to successfully participate in them

Question 167

What does increasing land scarcity mean for smallholder as a new pressure

Answer 167

1.Increasing land scarcity

It can be hard to access land

Large-scale acquisitions or land grabs

These can international or national

Scarcity can come by not enough land for your kids but also by being surrounded by large farms

Increasing land scarcity

Local factors :

• Concentration of land in fewer hands
• Population growth on limited land
• growing division of land holding
• closure of the agricultural frontier (no where to go, no where to expand)
• closing the frontier in the Souss valley
• > less opportunity for growth and potential reduction in available land

Question 168

Hazards have as much to do with ______ as with ______

Answer 168

social relations and processes

bio-geo-physical processes

Question 169

What are 2 types of irrigated farming ?

Answer 169

Oasis agriculture , Pivot farming

Question 170

What are some climate change implication in morocco (2 scenarios)

Answer 170

Morocco:

• Optimistic scenario: decrease of up to 10% rainfall
• Pessimistic scenario : clear decrease of at least 30% in rainfall
• Likely between the two (which will have large consequences)

Question 171

Depict the netwrok effect

Answer 171

Network effect:

• knowing someone in the destination make it less costly and cheaper to migrate (reduce friction)
• This can influence the likelihood that a person will decide to migrate to that place

Question 172

What are the two Major trends of rural transformation ?

Answer 172

Decoupling of poverty and livelihoods from land and farming ( livelihoods have less and less to do with farming)

Increasing mobility and de-localization of livelihoods

Question 173

What are rainfall predictions in terms of climate change ?

Answer 173

Less rainfall- but not everywhere:

• Models agree about a strong increase in rainfall in the horn of Africa for pessimistic emissions scenario
• Whether that’s good news also depends on how the precipitations fall (ex: torrential rains)