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Psyc 100 > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

Midterm prep

1
Q

Psychology

A

philosophy + biology

  • Study of behaviour and mind
  • William James- “Science of mental life, eg. feelings, desires, cognitions, reasonings, decision.”
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2
Q

Empiricism

A

Hypotheses and theories about the nature of mind need to be confirmed or disconfirmed by observation.

  • Several empirical methods permitting proper observation, descriptive methods & experimental methods
  • Short history in psychology
  • Opposite = Rationalism
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3
Q

Monism

A

Also materialism: Mind is within brain

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4
Q

Dualism

A

René Descartes

  • Brain is not mind
  • Res cogitates (not matter) vs res extends (matter)
  • Epiphenomenalism and interactionism
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5
Q

Epiphenomenalism

A

A type of dualism

  • Brain activity produces mind, mind cannot influence brain
  • similar to Interactionism
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6
Q

Interactionism

A

A type of dualism

  • Mind can influence brain and vice versa
  • Majority opinion
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7
Q

Materialism

A

Monism, brain = mind

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8
Q

Structuralism

A

School of thought: (Wilhelm Wundt) Basic elements form the parts of more complex mental events

  • Introspection
  • Sensations = raw sensory content
  • Perceptions = combinations of sensations
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9
Q

Introspection

A

A technique requiring intensive training to analyze conscious experience into its basic elements (sensations)

  • Wundt, structuralism
  • Problem = No objective, independent evaluation and reproducibility is low
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10
Q

Functionalism

A

School of thought: (William James) Psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, not structure

  • Influenced by natural selection
  • Characteristics have purpose
  • How people adapt their behaviour to demand of world
  • New: Mental testing, developmental patterns, education
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11
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

Father of psychology

  • Structuralism
  • First research laboratory
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12
Q

Gestalt psychology

A

School of thought: (Max Wertheimer) The whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its parts

  • Perception of objects is subjective
  • Gestalt laws: built human tendencies
  • Not predicted by stimulus (opposite = behaviourism)
  • 1 stimulus = multiple responses
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13
Q

Behaviourism

A

School of thought: (John Watson) Prediction and control of behaviour, stimulus = response

  • Purely objective, no introspection
  • Biology, not experiences
  • What you observe on outside
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14
Q

Cognitive revolution

A
  • Increase brain size, 25% energy
  • Consequences: looking for food, muscle atrophy, premature birth (bigger brain, smaller pelvis to walk, plastic babies)
  • cooking = more nutrition, faster digestion
  • Language: cooperation strangers, innovation of social behaviour (max 150 p), increase size of society
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15
Q

Psychophysiological model of mind

A

Model of mind: Explains human behaviour based on biology
- Form of reductionism
- Nervous system
Assumptions:
- Behaviour determined by structures and inherited processes
- Experience can modify behaviour by changing biology
- Aplysia slug (Kandel) w reductionism
Problem: Doesn’t explain how thoughts really work

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16
Q

Psychodynamic model of mind

A

Model of mind: (Sigmund Freud) All behaviour can be explained in terms of drives or other intra-psychological forces

  • Behaviour arises from drives and reflexes & attempt to solve conflicts between self & socially adapted behaviour
  • Psychoanalysis
  • Id, ego, superego
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17
Q

Behaviourist model of mind

A

Model of mind: (Pavlov & Watson) Overt and observable behaviour is the proper level of analysis

  • Tries to determine what factors control behaviour
  • S-R model
  • Can be controlled
  • Pavlov’s experiment & little Albert
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18
Q

Cognitive model of mind

A

Model of mind: Assumes that cognitions (all structure & processes that are mental) are the principal subject matter of psychology

  • Philosophy, linguistics, compsci, anthro, neuroscience
  • Behaviour explained by analysis information processing
  • Humans create/construct reality
  • Info processing account of memory models
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19
Q

Humanistic model of mind

A

Model of mind: (Maslow & Rogers) Assumes that humans are neither motivated by strong deterministic biology drives or environmental factors - active beings, naturally good w free will

  • Understands behaviour by detecting patterns in life histories
  • World experienced by subject, not external observer
  • Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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20
Q

Id

A

Follows the pleasure principle. Attempts to avoid pain and increase pleasure. Primal drives, basic nature (the wild animal within).

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21
Q

Ego

A

Reason and self-control, tries to mediate superego and id.

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22
Q

Superego

A

Morality, conscience, ideals, aspirations (your perfect self)

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23
Q

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A
  1. Physiological: The desire for food, shelter, and clothing
  2. Security: The desire for job security
  3. Social: The desire for affiliation and acceptance
  4. Self-Esteem: The desire for status and position
  5. Self-actualization: The desire for a fulfilling life and to fulfill one’s potential
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24
Q

William James

A

Founding parent: Functionalism

  • Prof at Harvard
  • Course: “The relations between physiology and psychology”
  • Stream of consciousness
  • Studied under Wilhelm
  • Book - “The science of mental life”
  • Inspired by functionalism, emphasis on purpose and utility
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25
Q

John Watson

A

Founding parent: Behaviourism

  • Took over psychology department at John Hopkins
  • Shifted away from philosophy toward bio
  • Research on non-humans, opposed introspection (Based on private experiences therefor inaccessible to investigator)
  • Redefined psychology in behaviourist manifesto
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26
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

Developed psychoanalysis and psychodynamic model

  • Founded first major movement of clinical psychology
  • Unconscious = main motor of behaviour
  • Id, ego, superego
  • Most of psyche is unconscious (inaccessible), preconscious (can try to make conscious) & conscious (fully aware)
  • Assumes humans = evil, aggressive, driven by sexual impulses
  • Psychosexual phases of development, “neurotic” behaviours & problems = trauma during phase
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27
Q

René Descartes

A

Person who was behind dualism

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28
Q

Abraham Maslow

A

Who was behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

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29
Q

BF Skinner

A
  • Endorsed the behaviourist manifesto
  • Operant conditioning with “skinner box”
  • Tested variables vs. reinforcement
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30
Q

Little Albert

A
  • John B Watson
  • Fear conditioned a small child
  • Banging noise with animals
  • After = child is afraid of animals and fluffy things, fear
  • Generalized: Conditioned response evoked with similar stimuli
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31
Q

Social psychology

A

Type of psychology: The study of anything that happens in groups, more than one person

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32
Q

Attribution theory

A

A framework used to explain the actions of others as the result of either dispositional or situational causes.

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33
Q

Dispositional/internal attribution

A

Whether another’s behaviour is assumed to be a result of their personality traits and characteristics.

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34
Q

Situational/external attribution

A

Whether another’s behaviour is assumed to be a result of environmental causes that are beyond one’s control.

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35
Q

Kelley’s covariation model

A

An attribution theory in which people make causal inferences to explain why other people and ourselves behave in a certain way
3 Things to look at before attributing:
E.g. She’s late
1. Consistency: Is she always late?
2. Distinctiveness: Is she late to other classes?
3. Consensus: Are others also late?

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36
Q

Self-serving bias

A

Attributing one’s successes to internal causes and one’s failures to external causes (helps preserve self-esteem).

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37
Q

Fundamental attribution error/actor-observer bias

A

The tendency to attribute the behaviour of others to internal/dispositional causes and one’s own behaviour to external/environmental causes.

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38
Q

False consensus effect

A

An overestimation regarding the extent that others share our beliefs.

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39
Q

First impression

A

The tendency for our initial impression that we have about other persons to be rapid and enduring.

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40
Q

Primacy effect

A

The initial information learned about another person has the strongest effect on impression formation, which is most pronounced with the initial information is negative.

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41
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A

When expected outcomes regarding the actions of others are more likely to occur because individuals unwittingly act in ways to bring about the behaviour (connected = confirmation bias)

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42
Q

Confirmation bias

A

The tendency to pay attention to information consistent with one’s existing beliefs and ignore or discard information inconsistent with their beliefs.

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43
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

When attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent, a state of unease is felt, which the individual is then motivated to reduce.

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44
Q

Methods to reduce conflict

A
  1. Change attitude- climate change doesn’t exist
  2. Change behaviour- I won’t take the flight
  3. Change relationship between attitude and behaviour- Rationalize, it’s already too late for climate change
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45
Q

Stereotype threat

A

Refers to the risk of confirming negative expectations about one’s own social group.

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46
Q

Mere exposure effect

A

The more time and experience that we have to someone is associated with an increased liking of that person.

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47
Q

Yerkes-dodson law

A

levated arousal levels can improve performance up to a certain point.

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48
Q

Conformity

A 
The extent to which persons modify their behaviour to be consistent with the behaviour of the surrounding group
Depends on:
- Group size
- Ambiguity of task
- Gender
- Personality
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49
Q

Groupthink and why it happens

A

When high degrees of conformity and consistency in a group are highly valued, to the exclusion of opposing information and ideas
Why?
1. Overestimating group: Illusion of invulnerability
2. Closed mindedness
3. Pressure for uniformity

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50
Q

Rationalisation/confabulation

A

After the fact, false explanation for why you did something (rationalization)

  • We don’t know when we explain something whether it is true or a confabulation
  • Like convincing yourself — more time to confabulate, stronger attitude change
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51
Q

Choice blindness

A

When you don’t notice when the outcome of your decision is swapped

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52
Q

Festinger study

A

Do a boring task, give small amount and big amount to tell next “participant” that the task was interesting (a lie).

  • Group that were payed less reported after that they actually did find the thing more interesting
  • People try to rationalize why, i.e. if I’m doing something I don’t believe in for a very small amount, I must have found it pretty interesting. If I’m doing something I don’t believe in, I will happily do it if I’m being payed a large amount
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53
Q

Social influence

A

A process by which our thoughts and actions are strongly influenced by the presence of others.

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54
Q

Social norm

A

Prescribed behaviors that vary across context, culture, and time.

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55
Q

Individualistic society

A

Cultures that place emphasis on the individual rather than the group.

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56
Q

Collectivistic society

A

Cultures that place emphasis on the group instead of the individual.

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57
Q

Obedience

A

Conforming to authority, tested in Milgram experiment

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58
Q

Milgram study

A

Shock experiment, most people delivered the max amount of voltage because a person of authority told them to

  • 15-450V
  • 65% went to max
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59
Q

Bystander effect

A

A person in need is less likely to receive help as the number of people who are present increases.

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60
Q

Theories of aggression

A

Agression is..

  • Biological: inherited, 60% genetics, amygdala
  • Environment: Behaviour modelling, social learning, Bandura experiment
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61
Q

Bandura behaviour modelling and social learning

A
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62
Q

Theories of prosocial behaviour/altruism

A

Helping others without the expectation of anything in return.

  • pure altruism, reciprocal altruism
  • biological or psychological
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63
Q

Reciprocal altruism

A

Engaging in what appears to be prosocial behaviours with the expectation of getting something in return.

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64
Q

Reciprocity norm

A

The idea that if others help us, then we should provide something in return.

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65
Q

Compliance

A

A type of social influence where an individual does what someone else wants them to do, following a request or suggestion.

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66
Q

Foot-in-the-door

A

Initial request is small so people willingly participate. Later make a larger request. (commitment)

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67
Q

Door-in-the-face

A

Initial request is large and rejected, so smaller request is made and accepted. (reciprocity norm)

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68
Q

Ockham’s razor

A

Given several explanations for a phenomenon, the most simple one should be accepted

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69
Q

Reductionism and its limitations

A

Break things down to understand, but once you are able to describe something based on smallest components, you don’t necessarily understand it

70
Q

Rationalism

A

The belief or theory that reason is the key source of knowledge.
- using reason & logical arguments suffices to find the correct answers about the nature of the mind
- Argues that observation not only is unnecessary, but potentially misleading.
Opposite = empiricism

71
Q

Empiricism

A

Hypotheses and theories about the nature of mind need to be confirmed or disconfirmed by observation.

  • There are methods permitting proper observation, descriptive methods as well as experimental methods.
  • Nurture
72
Q

Scientific method

A
  1. Identify the problem
  2. Gather information
  3. Generate a hypothesis
  4. Design and conduct experiments
  5. Analyze data and formulate conclusions
  6. Restart the process
73
Q

Inductivism

A

Several observations are used to induce theories, which are used to deduce hypothesis, leading to more observations, eventually to arrive at laws. Example: observing sufficient white swans might lead to law that “ALL SWANS ARE WHITE”.

74
Q

Falsificationism

A

(Popper’s suggestion, accepted) A statement (hypothesis) that is capable of being refuted is deduced from a theory. Tests are designed to refute the predictions (falsification), not to confirm a theory.

  • If one prediction is falsified, then theory is wrong - strict testing
  • Get closer and closer to the truth
75
Q

Scientific process according to Kuhn

A
  1. Preparadigm period: fact gathering, no science
  2. Normal science: One paradigm, puzzle solving
  3. Anomaly: Important insoluble problem
  4. Crisis: Insecurity, contending theories
  5. Revolution: Younger scientists adhere to new paradigm
76
Q

Observer effects

A

Effects of observation and consequences for external validity

77
Q

Experimenter bias

A

Scientists affect results, eg. rat experiment sex of scientist skewed results

78
Q

Demand characteristics

A 
The sum total of cues of the experimental situation that convey the experimental hypothesis to participants
- Person being studied is not only a passive responder, but might engage in the experiment actively, e.g., trying to solve the problem what the experiment is actually about.
- Eg 1 (Orne, 1962): subjects asked to add sheets of random numbers, then tear them up into at least 32 pieces. Over 5 h later, subjects were still doing it.
Example 2 (Milgram)
79
Q

Representativeness

A

The bias in experiments is Anglocentric, Eurocentric, Androcentric, and, used to be Masculinist.

  • Data obtained do not represent humanity in general.
  • Doubtful whether obtained effects can be found in other populations
80
Q

Artificiality

A
  • Done in research laboratories, bizarre tasks
  • Result of a reductionist approach, aimed at identifying mechanisms of cognition/behaviour.
  • Unclear to what extent the observed behaviour reflects the normal operation of the brain in natural situations and under natural conditions
81
Q

Descriptive methods

A

Any means to capture, record, or otherwise, describe a group. These methods are concerned with identifying ‘what is’ rather than ‘why it is.’

  • naturalistic observation
  • Participant observation
  • Case studies
  • Surveys
82
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

Observation of behaviour as it happens, without an attempt to manipulate or control the subjects’ natural environment.

83
Q

Hawthorne effect and experiment

A

The alteration of behaviour by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed
- Workers in the factory did better no matter what changed due to being observed

84
Q

Reactivity

A

Shown in the Hawthorne effect

85
Q

Experimenter expectancy effect and experiment

A

Two groups, group that was told they had a very smart rat actually performed better after training
- In reality, both rats were the same

86
Q

Response bias

A

The tendency for people to answer the question the way they feel they are expected to answer or in systematic ways that are otherwise inaccurate

87
Q

Socially desirable bias

A

Participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as acceptable by others.

88
Q

Correlation and correlational studies

A

A measure (denoted as r) that captures the direction and strength of a relationship between variables

  • Cannot detect causal relationships between variables
  • Allow for predictions which can be tested in controlled experiments to search for causal relationships
89
Q

Directionality and directionality problem

A

The direction of the relationship between variables can appear ambiguous.
- Causations cannot be determined, therefore it remains unclear whether a positive or negative correlation results from the increase in one or the other measured variable

90
Q

Positive correlation

A

Both variables move in the same direction (e.g., the higher the level of education, the higher the salary)

91
Q

Negative correlation

A

Variables have an inverse relationship, thus moving in different directions – as one variable increases, the other one decreases (e.g., the less day missed in school, the higher the GPA)

92
Q

Zero correlation

A

The variables are not predictably related

93
Q

Third variable

A

a basic problem of all correlational studies. The relationship between the two measured correlated variables might be dependent on a third, not measured, variable

94
Q

Sample

A

A subset (or portion) of a population

95
Q

Population

A

All members of a group

96
Q

Sampling error

A

A sample that deviates from a true representation of a population.

97
Q

Experimental method

A

Control over variables, careful measurement and establishing cause and effect relationships
- Hypothesis scientifically tested

98
Q

Cause and effect relationship

A

Two variables, One impacts/causes other

99
Q

(Experimental) hypothesis

A

A premise that describes what a researcher in a scientific study hopes to demonstrate if certain conditions are met

100
Q

Independent variable

A

The manipulated variables

101
Q

Dependent variable

A

The variables to measure the effect of the manipulations

102
Q

Control group

A

A group separated from the rest of the experiment, where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results.

103
Q

Confound/confounding variable

A

Other variables that may influence one or both variables that we are measuring, thereby influencing the correlation coefficient

104
Q

Internal validity

A

Controlling for factors that might bias the outcome of an experiment so that results are only due to the independent variable

105
Q

External validity

A

How well the experimenter can generalize to the population of interest is called

106
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set
- Broken down into measures of central tendency and measures of variability

107
Q

Frequency distribution

A

Skewed to the left, skewed to the right, or normally distributed

108
Q

Central tendency

A

A central or typical value for a probability distribution

- Mean, median (for skewed), or mode

109
Q

Mode

A

The value that occurs most often in a dataset. In a frequency distribution, this is the category with the highest frequency.
- Rarely used to characterize a distribution

110
Q

Median

A

The data point in a dataset for which half (50%) of all data points are higher in value, and half (50%) of all data are lower in value
- Useful for skewed distributions

111
Q

Mean

A

The average value of a set of data, computed by adding all values and dividing their sum by the number of data points that were added up
- Useful for normal distributions

112
Q

Normal distribution

A

Mode, median, mean are the same value.

- The values are usually not identical, but very close to each other

113
Q

Variability

A

Assesses how wide the scores are spread out in the distribution, how narrow or how wide the distribution is
- High value = not normally distributed

114
Q

Standard deviation

A

A measure of the amount of variability in a data set

  • The average distance of the data points from the mean
  • Large value = data in the distribution are spread wide around the mean
  • Small value = they are closely scattered around the mean
115
Q

Nature

A

You are born with (i.e. genes) your behaviours (Descartes)

116
Q

Nurture

A

The environment determines behaviour (Locke)

117
Q

Interactionism

A

Certain basic abilities and knowledge is innate, but can be influenced by experience, which in turn can change what innate behaviours are expressed, which influences what will be experienced, and so on
- Supported strongly

118
Q

Nativism

A

Knowledge of the world is mostly innate (a priori), and determines certain abilities (Descartes)
- Nature view

119
Q

Assimilation

A

Baby incorporates new objects into scheme, goes along with previous ideas

120
Q

Accommodation

A

New object doesn’t fit the existing scheme, concepts of world are changed

121
Q

Disequilibrium

A

Experience doesn’t fit with existing knowledge

122
Q

Proximate causation

A

Related to internal changes in an animal, such as hormones, learning, experience, etc.
- Explains “how” an animal produces a behaviour (a goal of reductionism)

123
Q

Ultimate causation

A

Relates to the evolutionary causes of behaviour. Explains “why” an animal behaves as it does

124
Q

Agricultural revolution

A
  • 8k years ago agriculture emerged, animals domesticated
  • Ownership, Instead of tribes = villages, nutrition diseases, reduced knowledge, sedentary
  • minds = same, behaviour reflects this
125
Q

Scientific revolution

A

Galileo, Bacon, Descartes and others developed scientific method to understand nature with the aim to control it (an old human dream, perhaps born out of our past as animal in the middle of the food chain)

126
Q

Anthropocene

A

Proposed new epoch. Outcomes of scientific revolution led to a new era in Earth history, characterized by human ability to modify entire biosphere, changing climate, geology, ecosystems

127
Q

Innate behaviours of humans

A

Present at birth & develop rapidly

  • Smiling & laughing
  • Attraction to novelty
  • Moro, grasping, rooting reflex
  • Crying
128
Q

Baby scheme/kindenschema

A

Phylogenetically preserved behaviour, a proportion we like in animals = cute

129
Q

Piloerection

A

Goosebumps due to cold, shock, fright

-Look bigger

130
Q

Preference for cover

A

Phylogenetically preserved behaviour

  • Children love to build caves, little forts
  • Prefer to sit with back against wall
  • Sit at seats at corners and borders/edges
  • Prefer higher lookouts for dwellings
131
Q

Innate social behaviours

A
  • Stretching out hand in primates and humans signals initiation of contact
  • Pet/caress/gentle touch comes from primate allogrooming
132
Q

Grasping reflex

A

Baby’s tight grip, e.g. baby monkey holds onto mom to carry

133
Q

Crying & laughing

A

Best tool of communication for babies

- Seen in blind/deaf children

134
Q

Trait

A

a distinguishing quality or characteristic

- inherited/learned

135
Q

Twin studies on intelligence

A

Study to determine which traits inherited, which learned

  • monozygotic resemble in intelligence whether raised together or not
  • Dizygotic much less, however more similar than random individuals
136
Q

Heritability

A

Estimates for intelligence, chances of it being passed on

137
Q

Dizygotic twins

A

Also known as “fraternal” twins or non-identical twins. In relatively rare cases a woman’s ovaries will release more than one egg at a time. Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are each fertilized by separate sperm cells. The level of shared genetics is approximately 50% and is similar to any siblings born apart from the same parents.

138
Q

Natural selection

A

Those organisms best adapted to their environment have a better chance of surviving and reproducing.

  • This theory of evolution involves the following factors
    • Rapid multiplication
    • Limited environmental resources
    • Struggle for existence
    • Variation/Mutation
    • Survival of the fittest
      • Inheritance of the useful variation
      • Formation of new species
139
Q

Rapid multiplication, limited resources, competition, variation & adaptation survival of the fittest

A
  • Rapid multiplication. Many organisms reproduce more offspring than can survive (e.g., plants produce thousands of seeds; cod fish lay >million eggs).
  • Limited resources. Increase of population requires mores resources (space and food), but both are limited and often relatively constant. Individuals compete for these limited resources.
  • Competition (struggle for existence; BUT SEE SYMBIOSIS!). The competition for the limited resources as well as for mates plays out on three levels: intraspecific (within species), interspecific (between species), environment (eg. flood, drought etc).
  • Variation & Adaptation. Because environment changes, the more genetic variation (mutation) within a species, the more likely it can adapt. Some traits in individuals allow them to adapt better to the environment than other organisms can.
  • Survival of the fittest (natural selection). Individuals with most adaptive traits have higher probability to reproduce and pass on their genes. Natural selection acts on phenotype.
140
Q

Rapid multiplication

A
  • Rapid multiplication. Many organisms reproduce more offspring than can survive (e.g., plants produce thousands of seeds; cod fish lay >million eggs).
141
Q

Prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic cells

A

Cells had no membrane- bound organelles, e.e. as mitochondria, and had no nucleus
VS
Cells found in plants and animals contain specialised organelles, some of them surrounded by a membrane

142
Q

symbiotic process

A

Processes/relationships where both organisms rely and benefit off of each other

143
Q

Endosymbiotic theory/symbiogenisis

A

Explains origin of species in addition to random mutation and natural selection
- Proposes that eukaryotic cells arose from symbiosis of singly living prokaryotic life forms
(Konstantin Mereschkowski & Lynn Margulis)

144
Q

Learning

A

Change in behavior due to experience.

145
Q

Performance vs knowing (learning)

A

If you know it spreading, e.g. innate, it isn’t learning

146
Q

Positive & negative reinforcement

A

Two types of reinforcement:

  1. An operant procedure in which behaviour produces a consequence and that behaviour will continue to occur in similar situations in the future.
  2. An operant conditioning procedure in which behaviour removes a consequence and makes your response more likely in the future.
147
Q

Punishment

A

Two types of punishment:

  1. An operant procedure in which behavior produces a consequence, and then your response will not continue to occur in similar situations in the future.
  2. An operant conditioning procedure in which behavior removes a consequence and makes your response less likely in the future.
148
Q

Survival of the fittest

A

Natural selection. Individuals with most adaptive traits have higher probability to reproduce and pass on their genes. Natural selection acts on phenotype.

149
Q

Conditioned/conditional stimulus

A

An event in Pavlovian conditioning that requires learning to be meaningful and is only meaningful because the event tells us something about the unconditional stimulus.

150
Q

Unconditioned/unconditioned stimulus

A

A type of stimulus in Pavlovian conditioning in which a biologically important event requires no conditioning to affect our behavior.

151
Q

Unconditioned response

A

A type of response in Pavlovian conditioning in which a biologically important response occurs because of an unconditional stimulus.

152
Q

Inhibitory vs. excitatory conditioning

A

Type of Pavlovian conditioning in which conditioned stimulus indicates that no unconditioned stimulus will occur.
- Negative correlation between the conditional stimulus and the unconditional stimulus (safety signal)
VS.
The conditioned stimulus indicates that an unconditioned stimulus will occur.
- Positive correlation between the conditional stimulus and the unconditional stimulus

153
Q

Extinction

A

For classical: Signal occurs without what’s signalled and the conditional response goes away; conditional stimulus is presented alone, and the conditional response decreases
For operant: Behaviour which was previously reinforced now produces no consequence and goes away; the response is not reinforced and decreases.

154
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

An effect in which, after classical extinction and a break without the signal or what’s signalled, the signal occurs alone, and the conditional response reappears

155
Q

Inhibition

A

Type of classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

156
Q

Generalization

A

Conditioned response is caused by things that are similar, but not the conditioned stimulus

157
Q

Secondary reinforcer

A

A type of stimulus in which consequences that were paired with primary reinforcers or already-meaningful reinforcers that will make your behaviour more likely in the future

158
Q

Instrumental/operant conditioning

A

Also known as instrumental learning in which the consequences of our behaviour matter.
- Through rewards & punishment

159
Q

Latent learning

A

A type of learning that has happened but hasn’t had an opportunity to be demonstrated (learned, but not apparent)

160
Q

Schedules of reinforcement

A

A description in words and numbers of how and when we’ll earn reinforcers.

161
Q

Shaping

A

An operant conditioning procedure to generate new behavior in which you get new responses by breaking down a complex response into smaller steps and reinforcing responses that look more and more like that final form and no longer reinforcing earlier approximations

162
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

Responses reinforced every sign time they appear (operant)

163
Q

Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule

A

a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.
e.g. Receive treat after repeating motion 5 times

164
Q

Fixed interval reinforcement schedule

A

The first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. Causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.
e.g. Give treat 30 seconds after action is done

165
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A type of learning in which one seemingly insignificant event signals an important event; a conditional stimulus provides information about the presence or absence of an unconditional stimulus

  • Pavlovian
  • Basis for behaviourists e.g. Watson & Skinner
  • Uses stimuli
166
Q

Pavlov

A

Russian psychologist, studied how dogs digest food staring with salivation

  • They started salivating when he put on his coat
  • Founded classical conditioning
  • Takes advantage of reflexes & involves associating neutral stimulus w meaningful stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
167
Q

Primary/unconditioned reinforcer

A

A type of stimulus in which biologically important consequences make your behaviour more likely in the future

168
Q

Variable interval reinforcement

A

When a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

169
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Also known as instrumental learning in which the consequences of our behavior matter.

170
Q

Aversive stimulus

A

A type of stimulus that is something you don’t like and for which you won’t work.

171
Q

Experimenter bias

A

e.g. • Exposure of mice and rats to male but not female experimenters produces pain inhibition
• Due to testosterone in the air, the mice rested differently

Psyc 100 (1 decks)

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