Midterm Flashcards
How many sentences can the short question answers be?
4
Deborah Stone distinguishes between equity and equality. Explain the distinction she makes
I use the word “equality” to denote sameness and to signify the part of a distribution that contains uniformity—uniformity of slices, or of meals, or of voting power, for example. I use “equity” to denote distributions regarded as fair, even though they contain both equalities and inequalities
(TA)
Obviously, for Stone, equity and equality are each contestable concepts in their own right (meaning political actors compete to define them). But the basic difference between the two is that equity has something to do with the outcomes, whereas equality is just about the inputs. This can make a huge difference in policy terms. Take education: should we ensure that per-pupil funding is the same for all students (i.e. equality), or purposefully distribute funds to equalize outcomes in student performance (i.e. equity). In the latter, this will mean that students with disadvantages and less innate ability receive more funding than their more advantaged peers.
Describe three differences between a policy analyst and a policy politician
Analysts: Efficiency
Politicians: distribution
analysts: outputs
politicians: inputs
analysts: sunk costs not worth it
politicians: sunk costs look bad
How do Schneider and Ingram define “target populations”?
policy is purposeful and attempts to achieve goals by changing people’s behavior. By specifying eligibility criteria, policy creates the boundaries of target pop- ulations.
Deborah Stone: “Markets can’t produce _____ b/c markets are inherently _____ and ______”
community; competitive, divisive
What is wrong with thinking of policy making in market terms? (Stone)
does not include aspects of sentimentality, altruism, loyalty, influence (group socialization), cooperation, incomplete info
What are Stone’s thoughts about efficiency?
“If we start from the premise that efficiency itself is a contestable idea about what constitutes social welfare, then the best way to organize society to achieve efficiency is to provide a democratic governing structure that allows for these contests to be expressed and addressed in a fair way.”
What are 10 characteristics of the Polis?
- It is a community, or perhaps multiple communities, with ideas, images, will, and effort quite apart from individual goals and behavior.
- Its members are motivated by both altruism and self-interest.
- It has a public interest, whose meaning people fight about and act upon.
- Most of its policy problems are commons problems.
- Influence is pervasive, and the boundary between influence and coercion is always contested (sources of ideas & preferences)
- Cooperation is as important as competition.
- Loyalty is the norm.
- Groups and organizations form the building blocks.
- Information is interpretive, incomplete, and strategic.
- It is governed by the laws of passion as well as the laws of matter
What is Stone’s definition of equality?
Same size share for everybody
What does Stone describe as the rationality project?
the quest for an apolitical science of government
Describe the Market Model (from lecture)
- Individuals pursue self interest, altruism is defined away
- public interests= sum of individual interests
- ideas and interests self generalized; decisions are based of gain maximization, info is complete, Laws of Matter rule, Market exchange drives change/improvement
Describe the Polis Model (from lecture)
- Community interests are central
- altruism can motivate decisions
- public interests= good for community
- ambiguity is the rule, not the exception
- groups, ideas, passions, matter
- “Common Problems” are ubiquitous i.e. educational inequality
What are Stone’s arguments about numbers? Lecture example?
- The fundamental issues of any policy conflict are always contained in the question of how to count the problem
- counting always involves deliberate decisions
- Word count in an assigned paper seems neutral until you start asking if it is too long/short, do u count prepositions
What is an example of wrongful exclusion in counting?
incarceration #s in unemployment
What is an example of wrongful inclusion in counting?
counting hospital beds for health planning, ppl thought beds in their worn-down local hospitals should not count as much as Mayo Clinic beds
Why is counting political?
- Counting requires decisions about categorizing, about what or whom to include and exclude.
- Measuring any phenomenon implicitly creates norms about how much is too little, too much, or just right.
- Numbers can be ambiguous, and so leave room for political struggles to control their interpretation.
- Numbers are used to tell stories, such as stories of decline (“we are approaching a crisis”).
- Numbers can create the illusion that a very complex and ambiguous phenomenon is simple, countable, and precisely defined.
- Numbers can create political communities out of people who share some trait that has been counted.
- Counting can aid negotiation and compromise, by making intangible qualities seem divisible.
- Numbers, by seeming to be so precise, help bolster authority of those who count.
Numbers promote what? example
Numbers promote conflict resolution; roe v wade, “weighing of competing factors” “relative weights of the respective interest involved”
Why is counting double-edged?
requires observation, which can cause changes in behavior (reactivity) i.e pay for performance
What is basic Stone idea about numbers?
If numbers are thus artifacts of political life, and if they are themselves
metaphors, symbols, and stories, are they “real” in any sense?
What does Stone believe about policy conflicts?
policy conflicts do not arise out of lack of facts. The “deeper and more important conflicts are over values”
What is the assumption about the cause of conflict that Stone disagrees with?
-Most conflict is seen to derive from ignorance, lack of facts
What does Stone believe to be at the heart of conflict?
Sure, policy disputes entail some disputes over facts, but the deeper and more important conflicts are over values.
What does Stone believe about facts?
- Facts are produced via social processes and institutions
- Facts must be interpreted
- There are no neutral facts
What are Stone’s 3 Dimensions of Distribution?
1) recipients: who gets something?
2) Item: what do they get
3) process: how do they get it?
Recipients: Who gets something?
Membership, Merit (i.e. donuts for people who participated; membership doesn’t go by merit), rank (vertical equity i.e. TAs only), groups i.e. women only
Items: What do they get?
Need i.e. hungry ppl need donuts, Value
Process: How do they get it?
Competition (market) if you pay for it you can have it; lotteries; elections
How do you analyze distributive problems?
- identify recipients: what criteria make them eligible? Why?
- Identify item:how do we define what is being distributed? How can changing this change our calculus of equity?
- Identify process: who decided how distribution is being carried out and how do they make that decision? Identify your biases and inclinations?
Define efficiency
maximize outputs relative to inputs, efficiency is dynamic, no one likes inefficiency; efficiency is a contestable idea
What does Stone think about measuring efficiency?
measuring efficiency is like trying to pull yourself out of quicksand without a rope
What does Stone mean when she says, “the distribution of national cake is a political choice?”
The equality-efficiency trade-off is not an immutable natural law. Rather, political leaders choose to promote economic growth in different ways and to distribute the fruits of the economy in different ways, too.
Is there an equality-efficiency trade-off? motivation
Yes: Maintaining equality reduces or eliminates the motivation to work
No: People arc motivated to work by inherent satisfactions. self-esteem, need for belonging, and desire to contribute to the common good.
Is there an equality-efficiency trade-off? waste
Yes: Maintaining equality requires bureaucracy, and bureaucracy equals waste.
No: Administration is a productive activity in itself
Is there an equality-efficiency trade-off? redistribution
Yes: Redistribution to maintain equality reduces economic growth
No: Redistribution does not reduce economic growth; it stimulates work, innovation, and risk-taking by providing economic security.
Is there an equality-efficiency trade-off? inevitable
Yes: A trade-off between equality and efficiency is inevitable.
No: Society can have both equality and economic growth; how to balance these goals is a political choice
Define efficiency
It has come to mean the ratio between input and output, effort and results, expenditure and income, or cost and benefit; there are many possible paths to the goal of “most value for the money
What 4 questions does Cairney identify as helping inform definition of public policy?
1) does government action include what policymakers say they will do as well as what they actually do?
2) does it include the effects of the decision as well as the decision itself?
3) what is the gov’t and does it include elected and unelected policymakers?
4) does public policy include what policymakers do not do?
Behn: what is the difference between policy analyst and policy politicians with regards to outcome?
- outputs are what concern analysts i.e. effectiveness of military
- inputs are what concern politicians i.e. profits and military jobs for constituents
What does Behn suggest about the role of policy analysts?
Policy analysts should take active roles in not only the formation of effective policy but of a political strategy; analyst should have background knowledge about similar attempts; don’t fall into trap thinking it’s “impossible”
What does Orren & Skroneck view as the opposite of policy? Define them
rights; claims that one person, in or outside gov’t, may make on the persons or actions of another, enforceable in a court of law
- policy looks ahead, rights look backwards -rights cannot be reavaluated or modified;
- rights are attached to individuals
- “natural locale” of rights is judiciary
What are Orren & Skroneck’s key claims?
- the dilution of rights and the erosion of structure are twin features of state formation in modern America
- expanding policy state has nationalized politics
- expanding policy state proliferates rights but also makes them weak and unstable
How does Orren & Skroneck define structure?
a set of conjectures or extrapolations derived from an arrangement of parts; exerts influence over both rights and policy
How do O & S define policy?
- a commitment to a designated goal or course of action, made authoritatively on behalf of a given entity, and accompanied by guidelines for its accomplishment
- motive (an animating premise or theme) is embedded in the apparatus of government
What does O & S argue about policy’s reach?
“We argue that policy has expanded its role in American government and society by eroding the boundaries and dissolving the distinctions that once constrained policy’s reach;” the only game in town
What does O & S argue about policy and progress?
“Now that policy has infiltrated every aspect of American life, now that it spews out of every corner of the state apparatus, now that there is little agreement a/b how pressing problems should be addressed, or in what order and at what expense, the promises of progressivism are wearing thin”
What is Baumgartener & Jones’ policy image?
beliefs, perceptions about policy
What is Baumgartener & Jones’ policy venue?
institutions where policies are fought over in
What is Baumgartener & Jones’ main point?
when policy image and venue change, you’re more likely to see policy change
Define Kingdon’s policy window? What leads to one opening?
period in which policy change is possible; when multiple streams come together
What are Kingdon’s 3 streams?
1) problem- i.e. if the problem in K-12 is low achievement, that would suggest certain policy solutions; constructed; come to the fore w/focusing events
2) policy- policy solution, different from problem
3) political-favorable conditions in institutions
What is coupling? (Kingdon)
combining the streams
Describe role of the policy entrepreneur (Kingdon)
as opposed to ppl hammering out problems, entrepreneurs (bureaucrats, lobbyists) have solutions but are waiting for problem to arise so they can couple solution w/problem; want to define problem, solution comes first; waiting for new window to open
Describe the Advocacy-coalition framework’s policy actors vs multiple streams
greater emphasis on individual ppl; focused also on coalitions of actors i.e. bureaucrats
What is bounded rationality?
a third party looking back and recognizing limits on actors; ability is limited to intake information
ACF subsystems
b/c of the complexity of society and its issues, participants must specialize if they are to have any hope of being influential. This specialization occurs within policy subsystems composed of participants who regularly seek to influence policy within a policy subsystem, such as California water policy; Lecture: “issue-specific network”
Describe the 3 beliefs of ACF
1) deep core: deep, normative beliefs a/b how the world works
2) policy core: policy-specific, normative implications/causes within policy subsystem
3) secondary: operational beliefs; can debate as potential solutions when we agree on underlying problem
Define ACF (lecture definition)
comprehensive approach involving a broad scope of actors when we have problems that involve deep ideological disagreement, lots of ambiguity, scientific + technical information that can be used in a variety of ways
What are the implications of bounded rationality?
- We may be more instrumental in deciding what info to process (could lead to bias)
- different from assuming ppl are omnipotent actors
What is policy according to the ACF?
policy is a translation of core beliefs as articulated through interactions of coalitions
Describe Canes-Wrone’s graph about responsiveness
constant, positive slope; public opinion may matter, but it does not guarantee that what the public wants will happen, shows that the probability of policy has a sensitivity to public opinion; more popular policies more likely to happen
Describe Canes-Wrone’s graph about congruence
horizontal line, vertical line, horizontal line: one support gets over a particular point, policy happens; avoids scenario where vast majority of people support something and it doesn’t happen
What is responsiveness conditional on?
electoral cycle, issue salience, policy domain, need-based popularity
How is responsiveness unequal?
varies by income/wealth, race
In their article “The Public Presidency,” what do Canes-Wrone argue?
popular appeals increase chances of legislative success, popularity of President is NOT central (less intuitive b/c before ppl thought popularity was key), Prez will not always follow P.O.
What were Canes-Wrone’s findings about Presidential appeals?
mass appeals increased budgetary success for popular AND unpopular presidents; popularity does NOT effect issue positions, didn’t find evidence that unpopular presidents support popular issues
Canes Wrone found that the president has influence only on _____ ____ ____ _____
policy issues he promotes
Canes Wrone found that the president is more likely to promote ____ _____
popular proposals
In Mayer’s article, “Executive Orders and Presidential Power,” what does he say Presidents use executive orders for?
make substantive policy, exercise emergency powers, strengthen their control over executive branch agencies and administrative processes, emphasize important symbolic stances, and maintain their electoral and governing coalitions.
What did Gilens & Page find in “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens?”
ordinary citizens have little influence on policy, organized interests and economic elites have substantial influence; democracy by convenience = orginary ppl gt what they want from gov’t only when they happen to agree w/interest groups and elites
What is majoritarian pluralism & why does it seem valid at face value?
dueling and diverse groups shape policy; conflict & struggle representative enough to generally be in line w/public preferences; Madison Federalist 10; seems valid b/c preferences of avg. citizens are positively and highly correlated w/preferences of elite
What are Fung’s 4 democratic deficits? Define democratic deficits
difficulties that prevent electoral institutions from making government responsive
1) citizens have unclear, unstable preferences i.e. minimum wage good or bad?
2) elections are blunt signals for preferences even when stable
3) difficult for citizens to use elections to compel politicians (accountability) to act to advance popular interests rather than their elite ends
4) the state itself may lack the capacity to produce outcomes that advance citizens’ interests well
Name Fung’s proposals to reduce minimal representation
deliberative polling,
What is deliberative polling? (Fung) citizen juries?
random sample of ppl, educate them, have them ask questions to officials and experts, poll them again; don’t have to form consensus; citizen juries meet for longer and offer recommendations
What 2 things does the social construction of the target population refer to? (Schneider and Ingram)
The social construction of a target population refers to 1) the recognition of the shared characteristics that distinguish a target population as socially meaningful, and 2) the attribution of specific, valence-oriented of values, symbols, and images to the characteristics
What are characteristics of Advantaged target populations? (Schneider and Ingram) Give examples
Positive and strong; The elderly, business, veterans, scientist; substantive benefits
What are characteristics of Dependents target populations? (Schneider and Ingram) Give examples
Positive and weak; Children, mothers, disabled; symbolic benefits
What are characteristics of Contenders target populations? (Schneider and Ingram) Give examples
Negative and strong; The rich, big unions, minorities, cultural elites, moral majority; symbolic burdens
What are characteristics of Deviants target population? (Schneider and Ingram) Give examples
Negative and Weak; criminals, drug addicts, communists, flag burners, gangs; substantive burdens
What does Mumper say in “Does Policy Design Matter? Comparing Universal and Targeted Approaches to Encouraging College Participation”
Not a big difference, universal design may be more politically viable; reverse-targeting i.e. state merit scholarships rewards the powerful while holding
down program costs
In “Lobbying and Influence” (Leech,) what 3 theories does she brand as most prominent in the studies she examined?
1) it may be a simple case of bribery or bought votes. That is what the many PAC studies would seem to suggest.
2) it may be that interest groups are influential because they help members get re‐elected, by providing information (signals) about constituency preferences and by their potential to mobilize constituencies in support or opposition to a candidate.
3) it may be that interest groups help make policymaking itself easier by serving as service bureaus, working with allied members of Congress, providing information, mobilizing publics, attracting media attention, and generally subsidizing the activities of government officials.
In “Lobbying and Influence” (Leech,) which theory does she conclude has the most evidence?
3: provision of information and other policy‐related aid is a source of interest group influence
In terms of interest groups, what is meant by majoritarian pluralism and majoritarian electoral democracy?
the difference between a government that responds to the preferences of a majority of voters (majoritarian electoral democracy), and a government that responds to whomever has the most interest groups representation (majoritarian pluralism). To understand why this matters, think about what groups are represented by interest groups (see Schlozman article), and how their interests might differ from the preferences of the median voter.
What are the 5 conditions under which responsiveness varies in “A Democratic Polity” (Manza and Cook)?
- elections
- issue salience
- fiscal costs of being responsive
- policy domain (a lot of interests=status quo, social movements=pressure to reform)
- previous conditions (path dependency=low responsiveness)
Define biased pluralism
dueling and unrepresentative groups shape policy; Schattschneider (flaw in the pluralist heaven,) interest group conflict tilts toward elite; Baumgartener–> no interest groups towards janitors, professionals, not elite
Define economic-elite domination
Gilens & Page; ordinary citizens have little influence on policy
