Midterm Flashcards
F SCALE T<50
- Likely to be free of disabling psychopathology.
- Socially comforming
- May have “faked good.”
BACK INFREQUENCY (Fb) SCALE
- Detection of deviant or random responding in the latter part of the booklet.
- If F scale90, interpretation of original validity (L,F,K) and standard scales is possible, but interpretation of scales that involve latter items needs to be deferred.
- Random responding Fb>80
- Fake bad Fb T>80
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY INFREQUENCY SCALE (Fp)
-Assessment of extreme responding relative to psychiatric inpatients.
F scale is infrequent responding relative ro normative sample.
-Assesses the extent to which a person is claiming more symptoms than people in an inpatient psychiatric facility.
LIE SCALE (L)
-Claims of being excessively virtuous, extreme high moral character.
L>65 T
- Possible profile invalidity due to very virtuous presentation. Claiming virtues not found among people in general.
- Personality characteristics associated with highly L- naivete, rigid thinking, lack of psychological mindedness of defensiveness.
K SCALE
- Developed as a measure of test defensiveness. To improve the classification of patients who were defensive on the MMPI.
- Items ‘less obvious’ in content.
- Most items endorsed false.
- Willingness to disclose personal info and discuss problems.
K SCALE HIGH SCORES
T>65
- Reflect an uncooperative attitude and reluctance to disclose.
- Fake good response set
- Absence of psychopathology should not be assumed
- TRIN T>80, individual may be presenting a naysaying response.
K SCALE
56-65
- Approached test in a defensive manner.
- Maybe giving appearance of adequacy, control, effectiveness
- No indications of serious pathology, may reflect average, ego strengh, and resources.
K SCALE
40-55
- Healthy balance
- Well adjusted and few signs of emotional disturbance
K SCALE LOW SCORES
<40 T
- Indicative of True Response Set TRIN>80 T
- Attempt to present self in an unfavorable light
- Exaggeration of problems
- Critical and disatisfied with self
- Ineffective in dealing with problems of daily life
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory MMPI 2
- Published in 1943
- Original purpose: to determine diagnosis
- Innovation, empirical key (criterion key) approach to scale construction
- Involves selecting items for scales by identifying those that discriminate a clinical (criterion) group from a normal group
REASONS FOR THE FAILURE TO ACHIEVE ORIGINAL PURPOSE (MMPI)
- Many clinical scales are highly correlated, making it unlikely that only one scale would be elevated
- Intercorrelation due in part to item overlap btw scales
- Unreliability of specific diagnoses during development of MMPI
LINEAR T SCORES
All scales were assigned a mean of 50 and a std of 10
-Problem: non equivalency of percentile values across scales
UNIFORM T SCORES
T score of 65 falls uniformly at the 92nd percentile for the eight clinical scales and content scales
USE OF MMPI 2 NORMS WILL RESULT IN HIGHER T SCORES.
N
COMMON PLOTTING ERRORS
- Incorrect application of K correction factor
- Use of wrong profile sheet
- Plotting the scale scores on the wrong scales
WELSCH CODE
Most common coding system.
-Numbers are sequenced according to their elevation level.
VALIDITY OF MMPI2 PROFILES
- Using measures of response invalidity, we can judge whether the individual has distorted the responses to the point of invalidating the test
- In some cases, we can correct for defensivenes to arrive at a more accurate symptom picture
- Determination of scale, invalidity from a test score is arbitrary.
- Valid Invalid is a dichotomus process, but scores are continuosly distributed.
IN CLINICAL INTERPRETATION
- It’s customary to use cut off scores to suggest valid or invalid performance on a scale
- Cut off scores are arbitrary but represent the ‘best guess’ estimate based on the empirical data.
ITEM OMISSIONS, INCONSISTENT RESPONDING, AND FIXED RESPONDING
Examine indices that reflect a test taking approach sometimes taken by uncooperative clients.
CANNOT SAY SCORE (?)
- If person has omitted more than 30 items within the first 370 items, the protocol is considered valid
- Reasons for omissions: test defensiveness, indecisiveness, carelesness, poor reading skills
VARIABLE RESPONSE INCONSISTENCY (VRIN)
-Can revel inconsistent responding Reasons---- .random responding .confusion .reading problems
TRUE RESPONSE INCONSISTENCY (TRIN)
- Pairs of items that are opposite in content
- Can detect tendency to give true answers indiscriminatly acquiescence
- Tendency to give False answers ‘non acquiescence’
- Indiscriminately neysaying
ALL TRUE AND ALL FALSE PATTERNS
-Another sign of invalidity is the percentage of True and False responses in the record
-A low percentage of either true or false responses (<20%) reflects a distorted response pattern
Reasons—-
.conscious manipulation
.careless responding to the items
PROFILE IS UNINTERPRETABLE
ALL TRUE RESPONSE PATTERN
Yields extreme elevations on scales 6,7,8,9 (measure severe pathology.)
-Validity scales- very high F at a level profile is uninterpretable L and K are very low
ALL FALSE PATTERN
- L and K are highly elevated, F scale also elevated
- All False produces a more ‘neurotic’ profile- elevation on scales 1,3, and 2
F SCALE (INFREQUENCY)
- Based on the premise that people who are attempting to claim psychology problems will go to extremes in their endorsement of symptoms and in errors to what actual patients would endorse
- Useful in detectiom deviant response sets and can provide info on extratest characteristics
ELEVATED F SCALE (T>100)
Possibility of an invalidating response set should be considered.
- Possible recording error. Improper recording of responses
- Random responding VRIN>80T
- True response bias TRIN>80T
- Possible disorientation. Confused, disoriented, unable to follow directions, reading problems (if VRIN <80T, this can be ruled out.)
- Possible malingering
F SCALE T SCORES BTW 80-99
- Possibility of exaggeration of symptom ‘cry for help.’
- May have responded false to all or most items (TRIN>80)
- Resistant to testing procedure
- Psychotic features
F SCALE T SCORES 65-79
- May have unusual social, political, religious convictions.
- Manifest severe neurotic or psychotic disorder
F SCALES 50-65
- May have endorsed items in a particular problem area
- Typically function adequately, in most aspects of their lives
HIGHER F SCORES ARE INDICATIVE OF
- Reporting emotional turnoil
- Feel unable to cope with stresses of life
- Often feel like failures
- Have few friends
- Easily frustrated, tend to give up readily
PATTERNS OF RESPONSE INVALIDITY
- Positive self presentation
- Fake good profile
- Defensiveness
- Negative self presentation
FAKE GOOD PROFILE
- Motivated to deny problems or appear psychologically healthy
- Effort to distort MMPI results
- High L and K- claims of highly virtuous characteristics that are unusual and create questions about persons willingness to cooperate with the evaluation
- F may be below 50T
DEFENSIVENESS
- Motivated to present self in a positive light but not as blantantly as in taking good
- L and K scale more elevated than F scale
- Scale with T scores in 60-65 range should be considered significant
FAKING BAD/ MALINGERING
- People are motivated to present an unrealistically negative impression
- Faking bad, when done deliberately to present self as psychologically disturbed when not the case
CHARACTERISTICS OF FAKE BAD PROFILE
- Very elevated F scale T>100
- Fb and Fp elevated, often at same level as F
- TRIN and VRIN not elevated
- Clinical scales elevated, especially 6 and 8, 5 and 0 least elevated
DIFFERENCES IN FAKE BAD AND SERIOUS PATHOLOGY
- F and Fp are usually higher in Fake Bad profile
- -F scale for psychotic persons 70-90T, Fake Bad>100T
- -Clinical scales higher for Fake Bad
EXAGGERATION
- Possibly trying communicate a need for help
- No prototypical profile
- Consider possibility of exaggeration if F scale and clinical scales tend to be much higher than expected given the patients history and interview
SCALE 1 (HYPOCHONDRIASIS)
- Clinical scale
- Most unidimensional scale, items refer to somatic concerns and physical integrity
SCALE 1 (HYPOCHONDRIASIS) SCORES
- T>80 scores, dramatic and bizarre somatic concerns.
- If scale 3 elevated, possibility of a conversion disorder.
- Moderate elevations (T=60-80), vague, nonspecific somatic complaints, lack of energy, fatigue, weakness
- If much greater than 60:
- — self centered, narcissistic
- — pessimistic, cynical
- — dissatisfied and unhappy
- — demanding of others
SCALE 2 (DEPRESSION)
- Clinical scale
- Index of person’s discomfort and dissatisfaction with their life situation
- Elevated scores (T>70), suggest clinical depression
- Moderate scores indicate poor morale and lack of movement
- Cautious, difficulty making decision, overcontrolled, lack of self confidence, insecure, withdrawal and lack of intimate involvement with others.
SCALE 3 (HYSTERIA)
- Clinical scale
- High elevations (T>80), classic, hysterical symptoms, feel overwhelmed, react to stress by developing physical symptoms
- Lack of insight about causes of symptoms
- Inmature, self-centered, seek attention from others
SCALE 4 (PSYCHOPATHIC DEVIATE)
- Measure of rebelliousness
- High scores, rebel thro antisocial and criminal ways
- Moderately high rebellion in more acceptable ways
- Compulsive with authority, underachievement in school, poor work history, impulsive, risk taking? Inmature, self centered, insensitive to others, hostile and aggressive.
SCALE 5 (MASCULINITY-FEMININITY)
- Non clinical scale
- High score for men: lack of stereotypical masculine interests
- High score for girls: uncommon, rejection of female roles, interested in male role
- Low scores men, presenting self as highly masculine in terms of hobbies
- Low scores female, feminine interests, derive satisfactioj from role as mother or wife
MMPI CODE TYPES
Ways of classifying MMPI2 profiles that take into account more than a single scale at a time
HIGH POINT CODE TYPE
Tells us that this single scale, is higher than any other clinical scale in the profile
2 POINT CODE TYPES
2 clinical scales are the highest ones in the profile.
-For most 2 point code types, scales are interchangeable
3 POINT CODE TYPES
- 3 clinical scales are the highest in the profile
- For most 3 point codes the scales are interchangeable
DEFINED CODE TYPES
Lowest scale in the code type is at least 5 T score points higher than the next higher scale
IF PROTOCOL DOES NOT FIT DEFINED CODE TYPE, INFERENCES SHOULD BE BASED UPON THE SCORES OF THE INDIVIDUAL SCALES
Refined code types can be interpreted regardless of the level of scores on the scales in the code type
GENERAL RULE: CODE TYPES
- If code type scores>65T, cab interpret symptoms and personality characteristics
- If <65T, inferences about symptoms should probably not be included
RELATIVE ELEVATIONS OF 1,2, AND 3 SCALES
- When 1 and 3 are 10+ T score points higher than 3, individuals are using denial and repression excessively.
- Little or no insight of problem
- Resist psych explanation
- When 2 is greater or equal to 1 and 3, individuals not likely to be so well defended, and may report emotional turnoil and symptoms
CODE TYPES 3 AND 4
- Anger control
- When 4 is 10+ T score points higher than 3, we expect problems with anger control
- Express anger openly
- When 3 is 10+ T score points higher than 4, we expect adequate control
- When 3 is equal to 4 and over 65T, may be overly controlled and not express anger openly but have acting out periods
SCALE 5 CODE TYPE
- Tell us about control
- Elevation of 5 suggests an element of control
- High scale 5 men are not likely to act out impulsively
SCALES 4 AND 6 CODE TYPES
- When above average suggest rather intense anger that is expressed in a passive agressive manner
- True for both men and women but more common for women
- Women with this present self as depressed rather than angry and may feel trapped in a role thats not satisfying
SCALES 7 AND 8 CODE TYPES
- Important info about chronicity of problems and likelihood of thought disorder
- 7 is 10+ T score points higher than 8, problems acute rather than chronic
- As 8 becomes greater than 7, problems more chronic and likelihood of thought disorder
- 7 and 8 elevated, person may be confused, but delusional system is not expected
HARRIS LINGOES SUBSCALES
- Represent the most popular and comprehensive effort of this kind
- Constructed subscales for 6 of 10 clinical scales - 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9.
- Should not be interpreted independently of the clinical scales
SITUATIONS IN WHICH HARRIS-LINGOES SUBSCALES MAY BE HELPFUL
- Aid in understanding why a person obtained an elevated score on a scale when its not expected based on history
- Useful for interpreting clinical scale scores that are mildly elevated (T 60-70)
- H-L subscales can be considered in relation to the descriptors of yhe clinical scales
SUBSCALES FOR SCALE 5 AND 0
- Scale 5 subscales used in MMPI not included in MMPI
- Scale 0 subscales were developed
- T score>65, high score
- T score<40, low score
WIGGINS
Developed content scales for MMPI
MMPI CONTENT SCALES
- 15 scales
- Help in the understanding of clinical scalea
- Provide info not available on clinical scales-content scales of incremental validity in prediction studies
INTERNAL SYMPTOM CLUSTER (CONTENT SCALE)
- Anxiety (anx), fears (frs), obsessiveness (obs), depression (dep), health (hea), and bizarre mentation(biz)
- Addresses symptoms, maladaptive cognitions, disabling beliefs that persons might be experiencing
EXTERNAL AGGRESSIVE TENDENCIES CLUSTER (CONTENT SCALE)
- Anger (ang), cynicism (cyn), antisocial practices (asp), and type a (tpa)
- 4 scales center around behavior control, negative attitudes towards others, and outward expression of emotion
NEGATIVE SELF VIEW (CONTENT SCALE)
-Low self esteem (lse) measures beliefs of self efficacy, how confidently the person deals with the demands of life
GENERAL PROBLEM AREAS CLUSTER (CONTENT SCALES)
-Social discomfort, family problems, work interference, negative treatment indicators
ANXIETY(A) AND REPRESSION (R) SCALES (SUPPLEMENTARY SCALE)
- Developed to measure the two dimensions resulted from the factor analysis of the validity and clinical scales
- High A scale scores, unhappy and miserable. In psych setting, neurotic, maladjusted, overcontrolled
- High R scale scores, introverted, internalizing persons who adopted careful and cautious lifestyles
EGO STRENGTH (ES) SCALE (SUPPLEMENTARY SCALE)
- Individuals appear fairly well put together emotionally. Not likely to have emotional problems.
- High scores suggest problems are likely to be situational rather than CHRONIC, prognosis for positive change
- Low scores suggest likelihood of more severe problems
- Dont have resources for coping with stress, prognosis not very positive
MAC ANDREW ALCOHOLISM SCALE REVISED MAC R
SUPPLEMENTARY SCALE
- Associated with addiction problems such as drug abuse and gambling, not useful in differentiating alcohol abuse from other drugs
- Best thought of as a measure of addiction proneness rather than alcohol or drug use/ abuse scale
- Elevated scores, nonabusing clients with characteristics related to antisocial pd
ADDICTION POTENTIAL SCALE (SUPPLEMENTARY SCALE)
- T scores>65, possess many of the lifestyle characteristics associated with developing an addictive disorder
- Current use or abuse of addictive substances not assessed with the scale, potential for developing an alcohol or substance abuse problem is suggested
PERSONALITY PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 5 (PSY 5) SCALE
SUPPLEMENTARY SCALES
5 factor model of personality except geared to psychopathology
- Aggressiveness
- Psychoticism
- Disconstraint
- Negative emotionality/neuroticism
- Introversion (lack of positive emotionality)
PERSONALITY PSYCHOPATHOLOGY- AGGRESSIVENESS
Measures potential for instrumental aggression. Cognitive systems which promote or inhibit aggression. Desire for power and domination over others.
Low A, High E
PERSONALITY PSYCHOPATHOLOGY- PSYCHOTICISM
Measures reality contact or distorted views of the world. Unusual beliefs and attitudes. Suspiciousness.
High O
PERSONALITY PSYCHOPATHOLOGY- DISCONTRAINT
Measures elements of risk aversiveness, desire for plans and order rather than impulsive action, and traditional morality.
-Rule following versus rule breaking and criminal behavior.
High C and High A
PERSONALITY PSYCHOPATHOLOGY-NEGATIVE EMOTIONALITY/NEUROTICISM
Unpleasant emotions, particularly anxiety, nervousmess, and guilt (N)
PERSONALITY PSYCHOPATHOLOGY- INTROVERSION (LACK OF POSITIVE EMOTIONALITY)
Difficulty experiencing positive affect, desire to avoid social experiences, lack of energy to pursue goals, and be engaged in life (E)
CRITICAL ITEMS
Involves using individual MMPI items as indicators of pathology or special problems
KOSS AND BUTCHER ITEMS
Empirically valid set of critical items differentiating those experiencing a crisis requiring hospitalization from other patients.
-Areas:
acute anxiety state, depressed suicidal ideation, threatened assault, situational stress due to alcoholism, mental confusion, persecutory ideas
SIMPLE ESTIMATION
Overall election on the clinical scales
-As more of the clinical scales are elevated, and as degree of elevation increases, the probabilty is greater that serious psychopathology and impaired functioning is present
SUPPLEMENTARY AND CLINICAL SCALES
- Anxiety scale, more sensitive to subjective distress and emotional turnoil than inability to cope behaviorally
- Es scale reflects personality to cope with the stresses and problems of living
- Scale 2, dissatisfaction with ones life situation
- Scale 7, measure of anxiety and agitation. May be overwhelmed by anxiety
INCONSISTENCIES IN INFERENCES
- Apparent inconsistencies reflect different facets of the persons personality
- Greater confidence in inferences based upon several scales than 1 scale
- Inferences based on high scores
- Inference from scale configuration more accurate than a single scale
- More confidence in clinical scales than supplementary scales
PROBLEMS WITH CLINICAL SCALES MMPI2
- Excessive intercorrelations of the scales
- – Item overlap
- – Common factor - Heterogeneous item content. Can lead to ambiguous meaning of scale scores
DEVELOPMENT OF RESTRUCTURED SCALES
Attempted to remove the common factor from the clinical scales and to identify a ‘core component’ distinct from this common factor
RESTRUCTURED CLINICAL SCALES
RCd: Demoralization- general unhappiness RC1: somatic complaints RC2: low positive emotions RC3: cynicism- non self referential beliefs expressing distrust and low opinion of others RC4: antisocial behavior RC6: ideas of persecution RC7: dysfunctional negative emotions RC8: aberrant experiences RC9: hypomanic activation, over activation, aggression, impulsivity, and grandiosity
ADDITIONAL MMPI2 RF SCALES
HIGHER ORDER SCALES
- Emotional/Internalizing dysfunction
- Thought dysfunction
- behavioral/externalizing dysfunction
SPECIFIC PROBLEMS SCALES
- Somatic/Cognitive scales
- Internalizing scales (suicidal/death, ideation, helplessness/hopelessness)
- Externalizing scales (substance abuse)
- Interpersonal scales
- Interest scales (Mechanical-Physical interests)
JAMES MCKEEN CALTELL
Developed measures of individual differences, including mental tests
BINET
Developed methods of identifying intellectually limited children in Paris public schools
- His test became the standford- binet in America
PERSONAL DATA SHEET (Woodworth)
Purpose: screening device to identify unstable draftees, checklist of symptoms
“Are you happy most of the time” (for the military)
- Used as measure of adjustment, 1st formal self report questionnaire to be available to the field.
- Used as model for later checklists
BERNREUTER PERSONALITY INVENTORY
- Multidimensional scale
- Several scales of different personality characteristics: neurotic, ascendence-submission, Introversion-extroversion
HERMANN RORSCHACH
- Interested in using patient reports of inkblocks as indicators of their mental state
- Psychodiagnostics guidelines for administration, scoring, and interpretation of responses
- Purpose: to aid in clinical diagnosis.
- Later used to learn how people perceive events, experience emotion, manage stress, and relate to others
DIFFERENCE BTW RORSCHACH AND WOODWORTH
- WOODWORTH, self report. Asks people to describe themselves, inference from this response to a personality characteristic or behavioral tendency.
- RORSCHACH, based on how you perform, you infer certain behavioral tendencies
OTHER PERSONALITY TESTS (INVENTORIES)
Inventories:
- MMPI
- MCMI
- NEO-PI-R
- PAI
Other methods:
- Thematic apperception test
- Human figure drawings, house-tree-person
- Kinetic Family Drawings
- Dotter Incomplete Sentences Blank
ENERGIZING FORCE IN PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
- Emergence of personality psychology as a separate and independent field of study
- With increasing awareness of personality factors, investigators more likely to include measures of personality
Psychological assessment: core of the professional identity of clinical psychologys in Post WWII era
Assessment: central focus in clinical practice from post WWII to 60s
BEHAVIORAL (INCLUDING SITUATIONISM) PERSPECTIVE QUESTIONED…
…the utility of personality assessment.
-Mischel, does personality assessment serve a useful purpose
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
Classification and assessment is dehumanizing
-Testing is uneconomical - managed care: cost outweights benefits
FRANK (1939)
Suggested personality tests like the Rorschach, involving unstructured stimuli, “induce a person to project… his private world of personal meanings and feelings.”
-Known as “projective methods.”
OBJECTIVE METHODS (TESTS)
Not entirely objective
PROJECTIVE TESTS (METHODS)
not entirely subjective
-Instructions may be unambiguos
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT WORK GROUP
- Recommendations for terminology
- Self-report tests
- Performance-based tests
SELF REPORT TESTS
Based upon what people say about themselves.
- ADVANTAGES:
- Allport, if you wanna know something about a person, ask them
- Most direct way to learn about people-provide more definitive info, less speculative
PERFORMANCE BASED TESTS
Based upon how examinees are observed to perform on tasks.
ADVANTAGES:
-Indirect methods can circumvent some limitations of self report instruments. Limited self awareness, unwillingness to reveal.
DISADVANTAGES:
-Generate less certain and more speculative inferences.
OTHER SOURCES OF DATA
- Interview
- Collateral
- Reports
- Historical documents (past reports, medical records.)
TESTING
The use of psychological tests to identify personality characteristics
ASSESSMENT
Integration of several sources and types of info into a set of conclusions and recommendations
- Purpose: related to setting, clinical health care, forensic, educational.
- — conducted to address questions of differential diagnosis, identify the nature and extent of psychological disorder.
ASSESSMENT PROCESS
- Purpose of assessment
- Preparing for personality assessment
- Selecting a test battery
- Limitations of testing
- Congrence and Divergence between tests
- Hypotheses
- Impact of structure on behavior
OLD SCHOOL RECOMMENDATION
In a test battery its useful to select at least one self report measure and 1 performance measure
SELF REPORT INVENTORIES
Suited for measuring personality states, explicit motives, characteristic people recognize in themselves.
-May be helpful in determining the presence of and severity of specific psychological disorder
LIMITATIONS OF TESTING
- Defensive, guarded, uncooperativs clients- can limit the utility of the test findings.
- Many self report test include validity scales which indicate if data are misleading or untrustworthy.
- With performance based, data may reveal littlw about their personality characteristics
CONGRUENT FINDINGS
- Identifying similar characteristics confirm that these characteristics are present in both structured and unstructured situations.
- Increase the confidence with which you can draw conclusions about this pattern
DIVERGENT FINDINGS
- Identification of dissimilar characteristics in different tests
- May show how someone chooses to respond in different test contexts
Always begin with a clinical interview, can be extended or brief
.
INTERPRETING ASSESSMENT DATA
Interpretation involves drawing inferences about an individuals current mental and emotional state and about tendencies to feel, think, or act in certain ways
EMPIRICAL GROUNDS
Empirical findings that a test result correlates with some personality characteristic warrant inferring the presence of the characteristic in the person being tested.
BENEFITS:
-Provide the psychometric foundation for confidence in inferences
CONCEPTUAL GROUNDS
Psychological constructs that provide a logical bridge btw test findings and inferences drawn from them.
BENEFITS:
-Can offer explanation about why certain findings are associated with certain personality characteristics
CLINICAL JUDGMENT
Consists of the cumulative wisdom acquired from practice and clinical experience. Can represent the beliefs of a large group of clinicians.
COMPUTER GENERATED INTERPRETIVE STATEMENTS
-Most tests have software programs to interpret the data
-Eliminates mistakes in scoring
-Reduces examiner variability, uniform interpretations.
LIMITATIONS:
-Not entirely empirically based, combine empirical statements with clinical judgement about signifance of scores.
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
Conscious and deliberate attempts to present a misleading picture of oneself.
2 types=
- Malingering, faking bad, overreporting
- Deception, faking good, underreporting
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT CAN RANGE FROM
Slight exaggeration of actual problems to fabrication of non-existent serious difficulties. Occassionally minimizing shortcomings to claiming a fictious level of positive mental health
SELF REPORT INVENTORIES
2 MAJOR CATEGORIES:
-Broadband multidimensional instruments: global assessments of psychopathology and personality
-Narrowband unitary measures: Assess a single symptom, type of psychopathology, or personality characteristic examples
