Midterm Flashcards
Health psychology
the application of psychological principles and research to the enhancement of health and the prevention and treatment of illness
health
a state of complete physical, social and mental well being
health disparities
preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by socially disadvantaged [populations
Trends that shaped health psychology
increased life expectancy
rise of lifestyle disorders (heart disease, stroke, cancer)
rising health care costs
rethinking the biomedical model
psychosomatic medicine
a branch of medicine that emerged in the 1900’s and focused on the diagnosis and treatment of certain diseases believed to be caused by emotional conflicts
biopsychosocial perspective
the viewpiint that health and other behaviors are determined by the interaction of biological mechanisms, psychological processes and social influences
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA)
a federal law aimed at reducing the number of people in the united states who do not have health insurance as well as lowering the costs of health care
Health Psychology’s emergence
in 1978 the APA created the division of Health Psychology..
- to study scientifically the causes of origins of specific diseases
- to promote health
- to prevent and treat illness
- to promote public health policy and improvement of the health care system.
life-course perspective
focuses on aspects of how health and illness vary with age, as well as how birth cohort experiences (such as shifts in public health policy) influence health
sociocultural perspective
calls attention to how social and cultural factors, such as ethnic variations in dietary practices and beliefs about the cause of illness, affect health
gender perspective
calls attention to male-female difference in the risk of specific diseases and conditions as well as in various health enhancing and health compromising behaviors
eco-logical systems model
health is best understood as a hierarchy of systems in which each system is simultaneously composed of smaller subsystems and part of larger more encompassing systems
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the remaining nerves of the body outside of CNS
somatic nervous system vs. autonomic nervous system
Somatic includes the nerves that carry from the sense organs to CNS and from CNS to muscles and glands. connects to voluntary skeletal muscle.
Autonomic includes the nerves that link CNS with the heart, intestines and internal organs
The Nervous System
Divisions
The nervous system is the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication system.
It consists of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Sympathetic nervous system
Division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
Parasympathetic nervous system
Division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
Brainstem
- The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull
- Responsible for automatic survival functions
includes the medulla, pons and reticular formation
medulla
the brainstem region that controls heartbeat and breathing
reticular formation
a network of neurons running through the brainstem involved with alertness and arousal
pons
Two thick stalk pairs connected to cerebellum that regulate sleep, breathing, swallowing, bladder control, and other functions
thalamus
the brains sensory switchboard, located on the top of the brainstem, it routes messages to the cerebral cortex
Cerebellum
Located at rear of brain
Helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
May contribute to specialized parts of brain
children with dyslexia and adhd have been seen to have smaller cerebella or reduced activity in this region.
Limbic System
Neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres
Associated with emotions like aggression and fear; and drives, such as those for food and sex
Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus
Amygdala
two clusters of neurons in the ;imbic system that are linked to emotion, especially aggression
Autism
hippocampus
a structure in teh brains limbic system linked to memory
hypothalamus
Neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus
Directs several maintenance activities:
Hunger
Thirst
Body temperature
Sexual behavior
Helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
May influence reward deficiency syndrome- where a genetic deficit allows for powerful cravings
cerebral cortex
the thin surface layer of the cerebrum, 3 millimeters thick. divided into lobes: Occipital Temporal Parietal Frontal
Sensory Cortex
lies at the front of the parietal lobes, this region processes body sensations such as touch
Motor Cortex
at the rear of the frontal lobe, this region controls voluntary movements
Association Cortex
Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions
Involved in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Endocrine System
The body’s “slow” chemical communication system
A set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Pituitary Gland
Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Adrenal Glands
A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys
Secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and cortisol, which help to arouse the body in times of stress
Thyroid Gland
Helps regulate growth and metabolism
Hormones secreted by parathyroid glands regulate level of calcium in the body
Pancreas
Glucagon raises the concentration of glucose in the blood
Insulin controls the conversion of sugar and carbohydrates into energy
Circulatory vessels
arteries
veins
capillaries
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) carry oxygen from lungs to body cells.
White blood cells (leukocytes) are infection-fighting cells of the immune system.
Platelets consist of small cell fragments that coagulate to form clots when necessary.
Circulation through the heart
superior vena cava right atria right ventricle pulmonary artery lungs pulmonary vein left atria left ventricle aorta
Respiratory System
mouth pharynx larynx trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli
Digestion
mouth-mastication and amylase pharynx-top of throat esophagus - peristalsis stomach- hydrocholoic acid and pepsin small intestine - nutrients large intesting - water rectum
Lymphatic System
Comprised of: lymph nodes, lymph capilarries bone marrow thymus tonsils lymph fluid -lymphocytes
antigen
a foreign substance that stimulates an immune response
lymphocyte
antigen fighting white blood cell produced in the bone marrow
Non-Specific immunity
Nonspecific immunity involves general defenses
against antigens
Skin, saliva, perspiration
Lymphocytes
Specific Immunity
when an antigen has been encountered before (natural immunity) or a vaccination creates a “memory” for specific antigens (acquired immunity)
Phagocytes
Destroy antigens in bloodstream by engulfing and digesting them
Macrophage
Patrol body for worn-out cells and antigens
Natural Killer Cells
Destroy viruses and tumor cells in blood and body tissues by injecting them with lethal chemicals
B Cells
White blood cells that attack antigens by producing specific antibodies
T Cells
White blood cells that attack antigens directly, without producing antibodies
Cytotoxic cells
Helper cells
Suppressor cells
Cytotoxic cells
type of T cell
“Killer cells” equipped with receptors that match one specific antigen
Helper Cell
type of T cell
Sentries that travel through the bloodstream hunting antigens and secreting chemical messengers (lymphokines), which stimulate other immune cells
Suppressor cells
type of T cell
Produce chemicals that suppress immune responding, also alert T and B cells when an antigen is vanquished
Primary and Secondary Response
With a B CELL
an antigen activates the B cell to produce daughter plasma cells and memory cells as a primary response to fighting infection
Plasma cells manufacture antibodies
subsequent encounters with the antigen cause the memory cells to attack and divide, producing new plasma and memory cells
Acute phase response (APR)
Sweeping physiological and behavior changes in response to infection
cytokines
cytokines are produced by macrophages
proinflammatory cytokines accelerate inflammation
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
Interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 (signal between WBC)
Bidirectional Immune-to-Brain Circuit
Cytokine molecules too big to cross blood-brain barrier and bind to receptor sites along vagus nerve
Vagus innervates regions of the body in which immune responses occur, including the spleen, thymus gland, and lymph node
Immune system functions as diffuse sense organ that alerts brain to infection and injury
Genotype
Sum total of genes that a person inherits
Phenotype
Person’s observable characteristics
Epigenetics
Ways in which genes interact with environment
DNA methylation is a key epigentic process that may mediate the biological effects of environmental factors by causing and reprogramming of neuroendocrine circuits in the body
fight-or-flight
Walter Cannon
activation of SAM axis, leads to increased blood flow to muscles, increased energy and higher mental alertness
SAM
sympatho-adreno-medullary axis
the body’s inital rapid acting repsonse to stress, involving teh release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla under the sympathetic nervous system
HPA
Hypothalmis-pituitary-adrenocortical axis
the delayed response to stress, involving the secretion of corticosteroids to reduce inflammation, promote healing, and help mobilize the body’s resources
psychoneuroimmunology
the field of research that emphasizes that interaction of psychological, neural and immunological processes in stress and illness.
Ader and Cohen: Demonstrated immune system could be conditioned
Pert: Found brain receptors for immune molecules that enable brain to influence brain activity
Role of the Brain and Nervous System
Reticular formation to thalamus to
hypothalamus to limbic system to cerebral cortex
Route for information about a potential stressor
Higher brain regions to reticular formation to target organs, muscles, and glands controlled by sympathetic nervous system
Body mobilized for defensive action
General Adaptation Syndrome
GAS Selye's term for the body's reaction to stress, which consists of three stages: alarm resistance exhaustion
there is a decreased resistance to stress in the beginning, followed by a rebound in resistance to stress. if teh resistance is prol;onged, it will run out, and exhaustion is reached. if exhaustion is reached one is vulnerable to a variety of health problems
transactional model
LAZARUS
theory that the experience of stress depends as much on the individual’s cognitive appraisal of a potential stressor’s impact as it does on the event or situation itself
Primary appraisal: irrelevant; benign-positive; threatening
Secondary appraisal
Cognitive reappraisal
primary is initial
secondary we assess the coping resources available for meeting the challenge
reappraisal is the constant updating of perception of success or failure
Situations or events are not inherently stressful or unstressful.
Cognitive appraisals are extremely susceptible to changes in mood, health, motivation.
The body’s stress response is nearly the same, whether a situation is actually experienced or merely imagined.
Diathesis-Stress Model
Individual’s susceptibility to stress and illness is determined by two interacting factors:
Predisposing factors (in the person)
Genetic vulnerability
Acquired behavioral or personality traits
Biological system reactivity
Precipitating factors (from the environment) Traumatic experiences
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Psychological disorder triggered by exposure to an extreme traumatic stressor
Associated with combat and catastrophic environmental events
Recognized as an independent disorder during the Vietnam War
Psychological symptoms include haunting memories and nightmares, mental distress, flashbacks
Daily hassles
Concern about weight, health, appearance, too much to do
May impact the unborn
May be symptoms of stress
Can interact with background stress
Hassles have proven to be a better predictor of health problems than major life events or the frequency of daily uplifts.
Daily uplifts
Relating well with friends, completing a task, getting enough sleep
Work overload
People who feel they have to work too long
and hard at too many tasks feel more stressed, have poorer health habits, experience more accidents and more health problems.
Role overload
Problem associated with juggling multiple roles simultaneously
Scarcity hypothesis
Enhancement hypothesis
Scarcity hypothesis
Because time is limited, multiple roles are damaging
Enhancement hypothesis
The benefits of meaningful work in enhancing self-esteem outweigh the costs
Burnout
Job-related state of physical and psychological exhaustion
Jobs that involve responsibility for other people appear to have higher levels of burnout. For example: Nurses Firefighters Air traffic controllers
Burnout is not an inevitable employment consequence.
Significant life events
Holmes and Rahe research: Life change units (LCUs)
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) attempts to quantify life events in terms of life change units.
First systematic effort to link stress and illness
Faulted for subjectivity and failing to consider individual differences in cognitive appraisal
Problem-focused coping
efforts to deal directly with a stressor by applying problem-solving skills to anticipate and prevent potential stressors or by directly confronting the source of the stress
emotion-focused coping
efforts to control your emotional response to a stressor either by distancing yourself from it or changing how you appraise it
gender differences in coping
Physiological differences
Men: Stronger catecholamine reactivity to stressors
May reflect tendency of men to be more hostile than women
Emphasize problem-focused coping
Women: Stronger glucocorticoid response
May help explain gender differences in coronary disease
Emphasize emotion-focused coping
Resilience
Ability of some children to spring back from sometimes overwhelming stressors that might otherwise disrupt well-being
Associated with many adult characteristics including forgiveness, sense of coherence and life purpose, self-efficacy, less depression, anxiety, and perceived stress
Origins
Individual traits: easy temperaments; high self-esteem; sense of personal control; well-developed academic, social, and creative skills (social cognition)
Social support
Explanatory style
Person’s propensity to attribute outcomes to positive causes or negative causes
Pessimism
Negative explanatory style
Attributions that are global, stable, and internal
Tendency to ruminate and passively disengage
Associated with anger, hostility, depression, smoking, alcohol and drug abuse; linked to early mortality
Pessimists experience more unpleasant events, which have been linked to shorter lives.
Pessimists believe that “nothing I do matters,” so they are less likely than optimists to comply with medical regimens or take preventive actions (such as exercising).
Pessimists are more likely to be diagnosed with major depressive disorder, which is associated with mortality.
Pessimists have weaker immune systems than optimists.
Optimism
Positive emotions increase a person’s physical, cognitive, and social resources.
Positive explanatory style and active engagement
Related to shorter hospital stays, faster recoveries, longer and healthier lives
Promotes healthier lifestyles
May also help sustain immune functioning
(C-reactive protein)
Broaden-and-build theory
Positive emotions increase physical, cognitive, and social resources, which in turn help people cope more effectively with stressful experiences and live healthier lives.
Unrealistic optimism
If a person thinks good outcomes are bound to happen, he/she may not do anything in the face of illness.
Optimistic bias
Belief that other people are more likely than oneself to develop a disease, be injured, or experience other negative events
Learned optimism can occur when early life identified pessimism changes to optimism.
Adversity
Beliefs
Consequences
Personal Control and Choice
The belief that people make their own decisions and determine what they do or what others do to them
Self-efficacy (Albert Bandura)
Associated with adaptive, problem-focused coping and healthier lifestyle behavior
Regulatory control
Ways in which people modulate their thinking, emotions, and behavior over time and across changing circumstances
Good regulatory control
Calmer, able to delay gratification, control emotions, more problem-focused coping
Less effective control (under-controlled)
Impulsive, unable to delay gratification, aggressive, venting
Social Support
Companionship from others that conveys emotional concern, material assistance, or honest feedback
People who perceive strong social support experience:
Faster recoveries
Fewer medical complications
Lower mortality rates at any age (Alameda
County study)
Less distress in the face of terminal illness
Buffering hypothesis
May mitigate stress indirectly through the use of more effective coping strategies
Direct effect hypothesis
May enhance the body’s physical responses to challenging situations
Better immune functioning
Encourages healthier lifestyles
Better relationships with doctors, nurses, etc.
People with better social skills receive more support.
Angry and hostile people receive less support than agreeable people do.
Angry people report more negative life events.
Angry people make others feel more stress.
Social support may actually backfire when:
It is not wanted or is inadequate
The type of support offered is not what
is needed at the moment
Too much social
Relaxation Therapies
Progressive muscle relaxation
Relaxation response - a meditative state of relaxation in which metabolism slows and blood pressure lowers
Deep breathing and visualization
Positive self-affirmation or self-talk
