Midterm Flashcards
Schemes
a specific psychological structure, ways of making sense of experiences, a framework for our understanding.
Adaptation
Building schemes through direct interaction with the environment, organizing through interactions.
Assimilation
Using current schemes to understand the external world.
Accommodation -
Create new schemes / adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely.
Organization -
A process that takes place internally apart from direct contact with the environment. Once children form new schemes, they rearrange them & link with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system.
Neglect is so harmful because it does not provide the sensory material needed to develop brain (experiences).
Object Permanence -
The understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight.
More than just recalling image – First need to develop idea of _______ – things don’t just “disappear”
Mental Representations -
Internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate.
Occurs as early as toddlerhood – precursor to forming memories
The ability to see things in “the mind’s eye” – what does my
Mom look like when I’m away from her?
Illustrating a story in their head – what is happening in the story
Deferred Imitation -
Ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present.
Curse words, tape recorder behavior, body language / facial expressions
Make-Believe Play -
Children act out every day & imaginary activities.
Children can tune out others as they play in another mental “place”
Need to have the ability to recall / synthesize information & perform the actions.
Mental Strategies –
utilized during the influx of information – allow flexible thinking & the retention of information.
Sensory Register –
information comes here first / first place of recognition – sights and sounds are represented directly & stored briefly.
Working Memory/Short-Term Memory –
limited amount stored. Actively applying mental strategies to recall information.
Digit span – 2yr = 2 digits, 7yr = 5 digits.
Central Executive –
Part of the working memory – “_____ functioning” – determines what information to attend to & process. Coordinating the information systems with what is already stored. Conscious actions.
Long-Term Memory –
permanent knowledge base from which we retrieve information.
Recognition –
the ability to tell whether a stimulus is the same as / similar to one they have seen before.
Recall –
The ability to generate a mental image of an absent stimulus.
2yr = 1 – 2 items, 4yr = 3 – 4 items.
Have the ability to ____ by end of first year.
Associated with language development.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory -
Focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation, social interaction in particular, cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society is necessary for children to acquire new ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community’s culture.
Zone of Proximal Development –
Range of tasks the developing child cannot master alone, but can do with the help of more skilled partners.
Scaffolding –
changing the level of support to suit the cognitive potential of the child.
Secure Attachment –
Infants use parents as secure base
When separated, may or may not cry – but still miss him / her
When parent returns – child actively seeks contact
65% of Americans show this pattern.
Low SES families – smaller proportion of babies show this pattern
Avoidant Attachment –
Infants seem unresponsive to parent when he / she is present.
When parent leaves he / she is not distressed. React to strangers in same manner as the parent.
20% of North American infants exhibit this pattern.
Develops in children whose needs have not been met early on in life. (flat affect/ inconsistency in models)
Resistant Attachment –
Before separation, infant seeks closeness to parent and often fails to explore.
When parent leaves, they are distressed.
Upon parent return – displays anger & resistant behavior (hitting / pushing)
May continue to cry after parent returns / picked up.
10 – 15% of North American infants exhibit this pattern.
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment –
Reflects the greatest insecurities
Upon reunion with parents infants show contradictory behaviors & communicate with dazed expressions.
Flat affect / may display frozen posture.
5 – 10 % of North American infants display this attachment pattern.
Self-Recognition –
At age 2, ability to physically recognize self as a unique being.
Can point to self in photos.
Refers to self by name.
Realize that actions cause predictable reactions in others.
Empathy –
Begins to be able to appreciate others perspectives
To be able to understand another’s emotions state.
To give to others what they would find comforting.
Categorical Self –
18 – 30 months
Begins to classify self & others into categories gender, physical characteristics, good v. bad
Begin to play with gender – stereotype toys
Compliance –
12 – 18 months
Is aware of expectations of caregiver & can follow simple requests / demands.
Child begins to think more consciously before doing things like jumping on a bed.
Will verbalize self – corrections
Delay of Gratification –
1 ½ - 3 years
Self corrections listed with compliance lead to ______ where the child begins to understand that there is an appropriate time and place for
desired activities. They gain the ability to wait for desired activity (like opening a present)
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old):
Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, extending from about 2 to 7 years of age, in which children undergo an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity, although thought is not yet logical.
Mental Representation
: An internal depiction of information that the mind can manipulate, including images and concepts.
Make-Believe Play:
A type of play in which children act out every day and imaginary activities.
Dual Representation:
The ability to view a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol.
Egocentrism:
Failure to distinguish others’ symbolic viewpoints from one’s own.
· Children believe that the world revolves around them
· They feel like they have a lot more control over their environment than they really do
Animistic Thinking:
A preoperational mode of thought in which inanimate objects are imagined to have life and mental processes.
· Personal connection to a certain object, individualistic to the child
Conservation:
The understanding that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes.
Irreversibility:
The inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction, returning to the starting point. Distinguished from reversibility.
Hierarchical Classification:
The organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences
Private Speech:
Self-directed speech that children use to plan and guide their own behavior.
Scaffolding
: Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the learner’s current level of performance. Direct instruction is offered when a task is new; less help is provided as competence increases, thereby keeping the task within the zone of proximal development.
Guided Participation:
Shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication in order to allow for variations across situations and cultures. A broader concept than scaffolding.
Attention:
ability to focus ~20 minutes
Planning:
Thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and allocating attention accordingly to reach a goal
Memory Strategies:
Deliberate mental activities that improve the likelihood of remembering
Elaborative style:
parents asked varied questions, add info to children’s statements, volunteer their own recollections & evaluations
o
Repetitive style:
parents use repetitive questions, usually closed questions (yes or no) that will form the memory from asking the same questions about the same event
Scripts:
General descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation, used to organize and interpret everyday experiences.
· Help predict future, used in make-believe play, used when listening to & telling stories
Metacognition:
Thinking about thought; a theory of mind, or coherent set of ideas about mental activities.
Motor Development:
The development of a child’s bones, muscles and ability to move around and manipulate his or her environment.
Gross Motor Development:
Involves the development of the large muscles in the child’s body. These muscles allow us to sit, stand, walk and run, among other activities.
· Children master motor skills during play- through games & repetition
Fine Motor Development:
Involves the small muscles of the body, especially in the hand.
· Self-help skills- two main areas:
o Care for own bodies
o Drawing
Initiative vs. Guilt:
In Erikson’s theory, the psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a healthy sense of ____ and through development of a superego, or conscience, that is not overly strict and ______-ridden.
Self-Concept:
The set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is.
Self-Esteem:
An aspect of self-concept that involves judgments about one’s own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments.
Social Learning Theory:
An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, in the development of behavior.
Modeling-
children learn to behave morally through observation & imitating others who act appropriately
Warmth & Responsiveness:
preschoolers more likely to copy prosocial actions of someone ___ & caring than those of cold, distant adult
Competence & Power:
children admire & imitate _____, _____ models
Consistency Between Assertions & Behaviors:
if preschoolers detect you won’t do what you say then they will take the easy way out (follow what you do)
Nonsocial Activity:
Unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play.
Parallel Play:
A form of limited social participation in which a child plays near other children with similar materials but does not try to influence their behavior.
Associative Play:
A form of social interaction in which children engage in separate activities but interact by exchanging toys and commenting on one another’s behavior.
Cooperative Play:
A form of social interaction in which children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme.
Induction:
A type of discipline in which an adult helps the child notice feelings by pointing out the effects of the child’s misbehavior on others.
· Gives children info about how they behave that they can use in future- motivates child’s commitment to moral standards
· Part of Psychoanalytic theory of morality development
Punishment/Discipline:
In operant conditioning, removal of a desirable stimulus or presentation of an unpleasant one to decrease the occurrence of a response.
Moral Imperatives:
Rules and expectations that protect people’s rights and welfare. Distinguished from social conventions and matters of personal choice.
· Cognitive-developmental perspective on ______ development
o Regards children as “active thinkers” about social rules
Proactive Aggression:
A type of aggression in which children act to fulfill a need or desire—obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward, such as adult or peer attention—and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal. Also called instrumental aggression.
Reactive Aggression:
An angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal that is meant to hurt another person. Also called hostile aggression.
Physical aggression:
A form of aggression that harms others through physical injury to themselves or their property.
Verbal:
A type of aggression that harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing.
Relational:
A form of aggression that damages another’s peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation.
Gender Identity:
An image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics.
· Measured in early childhood by asking children to rate themselves on personality traits
Gender Typing:
Any association of objects, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes.
Gender Constancy:
A full understanding of the biologically based permanence of one’s gender, including the realization that sex remains the same even if clothing, hairstyle, and play activities change.
Gender Schema Theory:
An information-processing approach to gender typing that explains how environmental pressures and children’s cognitions work together to shape gender role development
Authoritarian:
A child-rearing style that is low in acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control, and low in autonomy granting.
· Cold & rejecting
Permissive:
A child-rearing style that is warm and accepting but uninvolved, low in control (either overindulgent or inattentive), and lenient rather than appropriate in autonomy granting.
· Allow child to make decisions when they are incapable of doing so
Uninvolved:
A child-rearing style that combines low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy.
· Extreme form is neglect
Authoritative:
A child-rearing style that is high in acceptance and involvement, emphasizes adaptive control techniques, and includes gradual, appropriate autonomy granting.
