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Growth and Development > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Change in movement behavior (3 types)

A

Continuous - all the time, from birth to death
Age related - expect to see changes based on someones age (not an absolute)
Sequential - one step leads to another

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2
Q

Motor Development

A

Process of change in movement along with the constraints/factors that drive these changes

Lots of factors in play - not self-contained

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3
Q

Motor Learning

A

Relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with practice or experience

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4
Q

Motor Control

A

The neural, physical and behavioural aspects of movement - the system controlling movement

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5
Q

Physical Growth

A

Quantitative increase in size or mass

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6
Q

Physical Maturation

A

Cell, organ or system advancement in biochemical composition

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7
Q

Aging

A

Process occurs with passage of time, leading to loss of adaptability, full function and eventually death

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8
Q

In 1986 Karl Newell offered an important theory that suggested what?

A

Movements in the environment arise from the interaction of the organism itself, the environment in which the movement occurs and the task to be undertaken

Refers to the factors/constraints that alter motor development

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9
Q

What are the components of Newell’s Model of Constraints?

A 
Individual constraints (functional vs structural)
Environmental constraints
Task constraints

need to take into account and examine interaction between constraints when talking about movement changes

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10
Q

Constraints

A

Discourage or limit certain movements
Encourage or permit other movements
“Shape” movement

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11
Q

Example of individual constraint

A

3 YO throwing a ball vs 20 YO

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12
Q

Example of task constraint

A

Asking people of similar physical features to throw a ball from different heights

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13
Q

Example of environmental constraint

A

Walking on ice and slipping

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14
Q

Individual constraints are ___. The two types are? (examples)

A

unique physical and mental characteristics (internal)

Structural - related to the body
e.g. height, muscle mass

Functional - related to behaviour
e.g. attention, motivation

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15
Q

Environmental constraints are __, not task specific. The two types are? (examples)

A

Global, not task specific (external)

Physical
e.g. gravity, surfaces

Sociocultural
e.g. gender roles, cultural norms

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16
Q

Task constraints are ___. Example?

A

Not related to the individual

E.g. goal of task, rules, equipment

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17
Q

Disabilities

A

Differences in structural or functional individual constraints

may result in delayed, different motor development

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18
Q

The Research Process

A

1) Research idea - forms hypothesis
2) Research design - how to test
3) Collecting data - must pass ethics board
4) Analyzing data - what did you find
5) Publication process - how is this useful for people

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19
Q

Why is an info graphic good?

A

Data conveyed very easily

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20
Q

Name two research designs

A

Longitudinal - an individual or group observed over time
Pro: concrete answer - change over time
Con: takes a long time

Cross sectional - snapshot; individual/groups of different ages observed
Con: change is inferred, not observed

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21
Q

A Model of Sequential Research Design

A

Mini longitudinal approach with cross sectional study

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22
Q

Paradox in Development

A

Universality - individuals in a species show similarity in development
Variability - individual differences exist

important to emphasize both

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23
Q

Theories of Motor Development

A

1) Maturational perspective
2) Information processing perspective
3) Ecological perspective

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24
Q

Explain the maturational perspective of motor development

A

Motor development is driven by maturation of systems (nature), specifically the CNS.
An internal or innate process driven by biology - “internal clock”
Minimal influence of environment

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25
Q

Who started the maturational perspective? What did he suggest?

A

Arnold Gesell

Suggested invariable genetically determined sequence of development - individuals can have unique timing

Research: co-twin study - give on twin more attention (food, etc) - over time the other twin will catch up
AKA the changes in motor development will be temporary

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26
Q

Why is Myrtle McGraw relevant?

A

He also believed in the maturational perspective.
Associated motor behavior changes with development of nervous system.
Posited that advancement in central nervous system triggers appearance of a new skill.
Nature, not nurture - doesn’t mesh with Newell

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27
Q

What are the long lasting believes from Maturation Theory?

A

Basic motor skills emerge automatically - no need for training
Mild deprivation does not arrest motor development
The nervous system is most important

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28
Q

Explain the Information Processing Perspective of Motor Development

A

Motor development is driven by external processes (nuture)
Basic tenet: brain acts like a computer - the passive human responds to stimuli in the environment
Concept: encoding - storage - retrieval

Young adults were studied first as comparison for children and adults

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29
Q

Why was the information processing perspective a good thing?

A

Helped shift focus off purely biological theory and get people thinking which is more important: biology or environmnet

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30
Q

Explain the Ecological Perspective of Motor Development

A

Development driven by interrelationship of individual, environment, and task (importance of multiple systems) - Newell’s model

Two branches: dynamical systems and perception-action

Both reject CNS as executive controller of nearly limitless opportunities for movement
Allows for new types of experiments

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31
Q

Explain the dynamical systems branch of the ecological perspective

A

Primarily deals with motor control and coordination
Body systems spontaneously self-organize (not solely by CNS) - this compares with the maturation perspective because it says we are soft-wired not hard-wired
The body systems, environment and task demands interact
If you change on part of chain and change is slow it affects whole system (i.e. rate limiter)

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32
Q

What is a rate limiter?

A

An individual constraint that slows the emergence of a new skill

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33
Q

Explain the perception-action branch of the ecological perspective

A

Based on work of JJ gibson - ecological validity
Affordance
Characteristics define objects meanings - round = doorknob
Object functions are based on individuals’ intrinsic dimension (i.e. are body scaled) rather than the objects objective dimension
We perceive our body to be able to do something based on what the environmental characteristics provide

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34
Q

Affordance

A

The function an environmental object provides to an individual

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35
Q

Developmental changes are predictable and they are important for ___. They can be seen across a variety of motor skills and function to produce more __, __, or __

A

Optimizing biomechanical principles of motion and stability over time

Produce more force, velocity or accuracy

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36
Q

What are two biomechanical principles within the larger field of biomechanics. What are they known as?

A

Motion and stability

Known as the “physics” of movement

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37
Q

Newton’s First Law

A

An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion until acted upon by a force

We must exert force to move objects/people

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38
Q

Inertia

A

Resistance to motion related to mass
(Newton’s first law)

More inertia means harder to move - more force must be applied

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39
Q

Momentum

A

Product of mass and velocity

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40
Q

Newton’s Second Law

A

Object’s force is related to mass and acceleration (F=ma)
Keep in mind a=F/m

People have limits with peak force level but can optimize acceleration by putting our mass behind it or increasing radius of lever

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41
Q

Newton’s Third Law

A

To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

i.e. When you push on something, it pushes back on you!

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42
Q

Conservation of Momentum

A

Momentum before collision = momentum after

newton’s third law

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43
Q

Elastic Collision

A

No loss of kinetic energy (heat, sound waves, compression, etc.)

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44
Q

Inelastic Collision

A

Loss of kinetic energy

e.g. tackle in football

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45
Q

When projecting an object an individual’s limb traces __

A

Part of a circle (an arc)

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46
Q

What is the relationship that exists for projectiles and the person projecting them?

A

Relationship between velocity of rotating limb and velocity of object
Linear velocity (of object) depends on rotational velocity and radius of rotation
We want to maximize both velocity and radius

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47
Q

What is the developmental implication for limb length increasing with growth?

A

We can’t expect kids who are developing to max out their throwing speed at 13 years old

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48
Q

How can we increase the velocity of a tennis serve?

A

Make sure at point of contact, the arm is in full extension

Serving with bent arm gives more control but less power

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49
Q

Why do athletes begin their throw/serve in a bent form?

A

To reduce the inertia that is slowing them down
Arm extended would slow down rotational velocity = slower linear velocity on projectile
Follows open kinetic chain principles

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50
Q

Sprinters are a good example of what law?

A

Newtons third law - push off ground with as much force as possible
That is why limb is in full extension at end of gait

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51
Q

How do we make an object move?

A

Increase the impulse

Increase FORCE applied for a given time

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52
Q

How do we stop an object?

A

Decrease the impulse

Increase TIME over which given force is applied

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53
Q

Stability

A

Ability to resist movement

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54
Q

Balance

A

Ability to maintain equilibrium

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55
Q

Stability-mobility trade off

A

A skilled performer uses a base of support just wide enough to provide sufficient stability for the activity.

They are related

E.g. in rugby you don’t want to be moved but you want to be able to move quickly when you have to

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56
Q

How do you increase stability?

A

Increase base of support (feet wider)

Lower center of gravity (bend knees)

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57
Q

5 Step Method for Fixing Errors

A

1) Observe (watch multiple times, slow mo, different angles)
2) Breakdown (into component parts, general performance)
3) Apply Mechanic Knowledge (stability-mobility trade-off, open kinetic chain, rotational limb velocity)
4) Error Detection (most major error first)
5) Solution (what are we going to change)

repeat over and over

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58
Q

What are the four parts to a checklist?

A

Pause point - point in time where you double check
Speedy - less than 60 seconds to complete
Supplement to existing knowledge - not allow you to turn off your brain
Field tested and updated constantly - based on real experiences

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59
Q

Growth and Aging are influenced by both __ and ___ factors. Patterns include:

A

Influenced by genetic and extrinsic factors
Patterns:

Universality - patterns that hold for all humans
Specificity - individual variation

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60
Q

Prenatal Development Process

A

Ovum and sperm fuse to produce zygote
Next few days is cellular cleavage - each day the cell is cleaved in half
Within the first 5 days it becomes a morula (16 cells)
Then blastocysts

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61
Q

Implantation

A

The blastocysts (~100cells) moves through fallopian tube and implants in the uterine wall

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62
Q

Embryonic Development (when is it and what is the main process that takes place?)

A

Occurs from conception to 8 weeks

Differentiation (specialization) - cells form specific tissues and organs - due to genetics

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63
Q

What forms at 4 weeks development?

A

Limb rudiments

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64
Q

What is noticeable at 8 weeks?

A

Human form (eyes, ears, nose, mouth, etc.)

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65
Q

Embryo

A

Developing pregnancy from the time of fertilization until the end of 8th week gestation

At 8 weeks it is now known as a fetus

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66
Q

Fetal Development (when is it and what processes occur?)

A

From 8 weeks gestation to birth

Continued growth through:

  • Hyperplasia (cell number)
  • Hypertrophy (cell size)
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67
Q

What is recognizable at 12 weeks?

A

The sex of the fetus

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68
Q

Development is __ and __

A

Cephalocaudal - head to toe

Proximodistal - near to far, center to outside

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69
Q

Plasticity (relevance?)

A

Capability of taking on a new function

Although most cells have differentiated, cells are able to re-model and re-specialize to carry out new functions

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70
Q

Fetal Nourishment

A

Occurs through placenta
Placenta connects fetus to uterine wall and allows to nutrient uptake, waste disposal, thermoregulation and gas exchange through the umbilical cord

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71
Q

Moderating Variables (example affecting fetal nourishment)

A

Variables that help us tease out what is affecting this relationship

Women who live at lower SES have lower birth weight infants
In every ethnicity being a college grad decreases incidence of low birth weight

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72
Q

Sources of abnormal development can be __ or __

A

Genetic

Extrinsic

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73
Q

Congenital Defect

A

Can derive from genetic or extrinsic sources
Present at birth
Not inherited

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74
Q

Genetic causes of abnormal development can be __ or ___ or ___. Their effects on growth is variable.

A

Dominant disorder - inherit defective gene from one parents

Recessive disorder - inherit defective gene from each parent

Result of gene mutation (environmental chemicals)

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75
Q

Down Syndrome (What causes it and what do we see?)

A

Trisomy 21
Genetic mutation causes extra copy of 21st gene
Cognitive and physical abilities of an 8-9 year old their whole life

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76
Q

What is a potent factor contributing to Down Syndrome?

A

Age of mother at conception
20 YO = 0.1%
45 YO = 3-5%

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77
Q

Extrinsic factors that can affect fetus through __

A

Nourishment of physical environment

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78
Q

Teratogens (How do they reach the fetus, what do they do, examples)

A

Delivered through nourishment system - pass through placenta
Act as malformation-producing agents

E.g.
Alcohol, drugs, hormones, cigarettes, Rubella, lead, mercury

E.g. radiation

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79
Q

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A

Entirely preventable

Characteristics: small eye openings, smooth philtrum, thin upper lip

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80
Q

Development of the maternal blood supply to the placenta is complete by ___

A

12-13 weeks

It can screen large substances but not teratogens

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81
Q

Which tissues are most vulnerable to teratogens coming through the placenta?

A

The tissues undergoing rapid development

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82
Q

Overall growth follows what pattern? What growth especially follows this pattern?

A

Sigmoid pattern
(s-shaped)

Weight and height

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83
Q

Peak Height Velocity for girls vs boys

A

Girls - 11.5 to 12 years

Boys - 13.5 to 14 years

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84
Q

Growth height tapers off around __ for girls and __ for boys

A

Girls - tapers at 14, ends around 16

Boys - tapers at 17, ends around 18

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85
Q

What contributes to the absolute height difference between males and females?

A

Longer growth period in males

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86
Q

After peak height velocity, males’ growth extends for ___ more years than females

A

2

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87
Q

Weight is susceptible to?

A

Extrinsic factors - diet and exercise

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88
Q

People grow up then __

A

Fill out

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89
Q

Peak weight velocity follows height velocity by __ in girls and __ in boys

A

Girls - 3.5 to 10.5 MONTHS

Boys - 2.5 to 5 months

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90
Q

Health study done in the US was based on 4 factors, what were they? How many people were “healthy”?

A

Proper BMI
Healthy diet
Non smoker
Achieved physical activity guidelines

Only 2.7%

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91
Q

Postnatal growth: distance curves show ___ and velocity curves show ___

A

Distance curves show EXTENT of growth

Velocity curves show RATE of growth

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92
Q

Where on a velocity curve shows when an individuals growth rate changes from fast to slow?

A

The peak

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93
Q

What is the equivalent to boys increasing in shoulder breadth in females?

A

Hip width increasing

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94
Q

Brain reaches 80% adult weight by what age? And contributes to how much height?

A

Age 4

1/4 of height

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95
Q

Why is our head so big when we are born?

A

Because the brain dictates a lot of the development so body allocates more resources to brain to develop it

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96
Q

Children may vary in maturation rate specifically regarding __ and __

A

Behavioural maturation

Sexual maturation

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97
Q

It is difficult to infer maturity from __, __ or __

A

Age alone
Size alone
Or age and size together

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98
Q

Secondary Sex Characteristics

A

Characteristics that appear as a function of maturation

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99
Q

What is the average age of menarche?

A

12.4 years

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100
Q

What are two possible causes for why menarche is happening earlier?

A

For each 1 kg/m2 increase in childhood BMI there is a 6.5% greater chance of experiencing early menarche - body weight

Disrupting chemicals/exogenous substances which can mimic endocrine hormones in body

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101
Q

Which secondary sex characteristics occur in both males and females?

A 
Grow taller/growth spurts
Voice changes
Skin gets oily
Acne
Hair gets oily
Hair grows in underarms
Hair grows on genitals
Sweat glands develop
Body starts producing sex hormones
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102
Q

What is the problem with catch up growth?

A

Kids who exhibit catch up growth between ages 0 and 2 exhibit a significantly greater central (visceral) fat distribution

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103
Q

Why is visceral fat bad?

A

Signifies that organs will be surrounded by fat

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104
Q

Risks of NOT breastfeeding for infants?

A

Ear infections
Gastrointestinal infections
Asthma with or without family history
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

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105
Q

What does WHO say about breastfeeding?

A 
Does not affect cholesterol
Blood pressure barely affected
Diabetes inconclusive
Overweight/obesity results from not
Intelligence significantly reduced without
106
Q

Why does height decrease in older adulthood?

A

Compression of cartilage pads
Osteoporosis
Compression fractures of vertebrae leading to kyphosis

107
Q

Age Related Hyperkyphosis (causes, affects, how to fix)

A

Causes: vertebral fractures, degenerative disc disease, muscle weakness

Affects: decrease quality of life and increased risk of mortality

Fix: strengthen back muscles - erector spinae and quadratus lumborum

108
Q

How to treat age related hyperkyphosis?

A

Physical therapy - first line approach
Reduces risk of falls, fractures
Strengthening, stretching, postural alignment, bracing/taping
No medications have been proven to improve hyperkyphosis

Women with prior fracture should practice extension exercises not flexion to decrease risk of refracture

Calcium and vitamin D help prevent osteoporosis (12% reduction in fracture risk)

109
Q

Body System factors:

A

The average pattern of change within each system

The range of individual variations for a system

110
Q

When and where does ossification begin?

A

Begins at primary ossification centers in the midportions (diaphysis) of long bones before birth (fetal age of 2 months)

111
Q

During early embryonic life the skull exists as __

A

Cartilage

112
Q

At 2 months old there are __ total ossification centers.

A

800 (400 prenatal + 400 postnatal)

113
Q

Postnatal growth in bone length occurs at __. What are these areas called?

A 
Secondary centers at the end of long bones
Epiphyseal plates (growth plates)
114
Q

How do short bones (tarsal) grow?

A

Ossify from center outward

115
Q

What are traction epiphysis?

A

Where muscle tendons attach to bones

116
Q

List the Long Bones in the body

A 
Femur
Tibia
Fibula
Ulna
Radius
Clavicle
Metatarsal
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Humerus
117
Q

Osgood Schlatter (cause and treatment)

A

Caused by repetitive stress or tension on a part of the growth area on the upper tibia (traction epiphysis) and characterized by inflammation

Treatment: avoid physical activity to prevent further irritation

118
Q

Does cessation of growth at epiphyseal plates happen at different times for different bones? At what age to the plates close?

A

Yes different bones stop growing at different times
All typically close by 18 or 19 (depending on gender)
helps doctors know how long healing will take

119
Q

Average humerus epiphyseal plate closes at __ for females and __ for males

A
  1. 5 for females

18. 1 for males

120
Q

In youth, new bone is formed faster than old bone is absorbed. What about in adults?

A

In adults bone growth slows and fails to keep pace with reabsorption

121
Q

Why does bone become more brittle as we age?

A

Unequal amounts organic and inorganic material

122
Q

Osteoporosis (what is it?)

A

Bones become brittle as a result of loss of tissue, due to hormonal changes, calcium/vitamin D deficiency, diet, or exercise

Bone characterized as porous

123
Q

Osteoporosis (what happens when you have it?)

A

Leads to rib cage collapse (hard to breathe), stooped posture and reduced height
Risk of micro-fractures in vertebrae - kyphosis

124
Q

What is the go to recommendation for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis?

A

Cosman Guidelines*
For postmenopausal women and men over 50
1. Diet includes adequate calcium inake (1000-1200mg/day)
2. Vitamin D intake (800-1000 IU/day)
3. Regular weight bearing and muscle exercises to improve agility, strength, posture, and balance, maintain or improve bone strength
4. Assess risk factors for falls and offer appropriate modifications (home safety)
5. Ask to stop smoking and avoid excessive alcohol intake

125
Q

DEXA (what is it?)

A

Specialized x ray machine that helps assess bone mineral density (assess body composition)

126
Q

Prenatal muscular growth involves __ and _. Whereas postnatal muscular growth involves mainly ___

A

Hyperplasia and hypertrophy

Postnatal is mostly hypertrophy

127
Q

Muscles grow by __

A

Addition of sarcomeres

128
Q

Muscle mass differences between the sexes become marked in adolescence. Specifically when?

A

Men stops at 17 YO

Women stops at 13 YO

129
Q

Loss of MM is minimal until age __. Only __% is lost between 20s until then. Loss in __ and __.

A

Age 50
Only 10% lost between 20 and 50
Loss in number and size

130
Q

Loss of MM is less than loss of strength. What does this suggest? Relevance?

A

Suggest a decline in muscle quality

Maintaining or even gaining MM will not prevent age-related strength declines

131
Q

Types of Muscle Fiber

A

Type 1 (slow twitch), type 2a, 2x and 2b (all fast twitch)

At birth 10-15% are undifferentiated and by age 1 they are distributed.

132
Q

With age the heart can lose optimal function (decrease elasticity of vessels). Most of this is due to __ rather than aging.

A

Lifestyle

133
Q

Fat increases rapidly until age ___; then gradually until __ years

A

Rapidly until 6 months

Gradually until 8 years old

134
Q

Girls experience increase in fat after 8 years old but what happens to boys?

A

Boys experience decrease in fat in extremities and trunk

135
Q

Body fat distribution changes with growth. Subcutaneous fat % increases from _ to _ in males and _ to _ in females

A

7 to 12 in males

7 to 17 in females

136
Q

Is gaining fat in adulthood inevitable?

A

No

Norwegian lumberjack study - if you stay active there are certain populations who aren’t susceptible to this

137
Q

Endocrine System (what does it do? why is it important?)

A

Regulates growth and maturation through chemical substances called hormones. excess or deficiency can alter growth.

138
Q

Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus regulate the __, which in turn, regulates the _, _, and _

A

Pituitary gland

Regulates the adrenal gland, thyroid gland and release of sex hormones

139
Q

Major hormones involved in growth:

A 
Growth hormone (GH - secreted by ant. pituitary) - stimulates protein anabolism 
Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) - regulate metabolism
140
Q

Androgens (secreted from, purpose)

A

Secreted by testes (boys) and adrenal glands (boys and girls)
Result:
- epiphyseal growth plate closure
- growth of muscle mass

141
Q

Estrogen (secreted from, purpose)

A

Secreted by ovaries (girls) and adrenal glands (boys and girls)
Result:
- epiphyseal growth plate closure
- accumulation of fat

142
Q

Nervous System development is direct by __. But __ factors play an influence on formation of ___.

A

Driven by genes
Extrinsic factors
Synaptic connections

143
Q

Prenatal Neural Development (what happens? what might disturb it?)

A

Rapid formation of immature neurons that only develop axons once in final position (6th prenatal month). Neurons then start to fire randomly before forming circuits (more efficient with experience)

Teratogens might disturb it

144
Q

Postnatal brain growth includes:

A

Increase in size of neurons
Prolific branching to form synapses
Increases in glial cells for support and nourishment of neurons
Increases in myelin to insulate axons

145
Q

What increases number of synaptic connections?

A

Stimulation of learning

146
Q

Multiple Sclerosis (what is it? symptoms)

A

Loss of oligodendrocytes (responsible for maintain and creating myelin sheath) which help neurons carry electrical signals

Symptoms: numbness, tingling, walking difficulty

147
Q

Nervous System in Older Adults (theory)

A

Loss of neurons, dendrites, etc.

One theory suggest as we age there are breaks in neural networks which cause detours and therefore slowing

148
Q

What promotes cognitive function?

A

Exercise

149
Q

Newborn Movement Classes (two types)

A

Spontaneous - movements not caused by known external stimuli

Reflexive - stereotypical, involuntary responses elicited by specific external stimuli

150
Q

The Original Theory behind Spontaneous Movement

A

Movements were extraneous with no purpose

Though research should focus on reflexive movement instead

151
Q

The Current Theory behind Spontaneous Movement

A

Spontaneous movement is the building blocks - similar to some voluntary movements
E.g. supine kicks in infancy resemble adult step
E.g. arm movements resemble reaching

152
Q

Co-contraction occurs for roughly the first year. What is it?

A

Two muscle groups firing at the same time

Doesn’t happen in adults (our muscles use complimentary firing)

153
Q

Reflexes (what are they, what do they involve, relevance?)

A

Specific to external stimuli, localized, and same stimulus will elicit a corresponding reflex over and over (reproducible)
Involve single muscle or group of muscles
Relevance:
- allow dialogue with environment
- result in sensory consequences (adaptation)
- building blocks for future (e.g. blinking reflex)

154
Q

Infantile Reflexes

A

Only seen during early development
Three types: primitive, postural, and locomotor
Don’t have them because we develop control over movement

155
Q

Spontaneous Movements

A

Do not result from external stimuli and are more generalized in nature

Same spontaneous movement twice is probably random

156
Q

Primitive Infantile Reflex

A

Involuntary responses often mediated by lower brain centers

157
Q

Postural Infantile Reflex

A

AKA gravity reflex - Help infant maintain posture in changing environment

158
Q

Locomotor Infantile Reflex

A

Appears similar to a voluntary movement but disappears before an infant attempts these voluntary skills

159
Q

Asymmetrical Tonic Neck Reflex (primitive, postural, locomotive)

A 
Primitive reflex
Infant starts in supine
Stimulus: turn head to one side 
Response: same-side arm and leg extend
Normal: 0-4 months
Problematic: > 6 months
160
Q

Babinski Reflex (primitive, postural, locomotive)

A 
Primitive
Stimulus: stroke sole of foot
Response: toes extend 
Normal: 0-4 months - corticospinal pathways from brain to spinal cord not fully myelinated
Problematic: > 6 months
161
Q

Moro Reflex (primitive, postural, locomotive)

A

Primitive
Infant starts in supine
Stimulus: shake head (e.g. by tapping pillow)
Response: arms, legs and fingers extend; then arms and leg flex
Normal: 0-3 months
Problematic: > 6 months

162
Q

Ladyrinthine Righting (primitive, postural, locomotive)

A

Stimulus: tilt infant in support upright position
Response: head moves upright (initiated by vestibular system - reference frames)
Time: 2-12 months (not primitive because it takes a couple months to show up)

163
Q

Stepping Reflex (primitive, postural, locomotive)

A

Locomotor
Infant starts held upright and is placed on flat surface
Response: initiate walking pattern
Normal: 0-5 months
mimicking - if you let go they fall down

164
Q

Difference between infancy and later infancy

A

Now have voluntary control of movement
Understand environment
Meaningful interaction with others

165
Q

Progressive pattern of skill acquisition dependent on:

A

Maturation of CNS
Development of muscular strength and endurance
Development of posture and balance
Improvement of sensory provessing

166
Q

Examples of Motor Milestones

A

Fundamental motor skills - building blocks that are cumulative and sequential
Specific movements that lead to general actions

167
Q

WHO Multicenter Growth Reference Study (what happened? what was required?)

A

Motor milestones same all over world as long as in same type of home - AKA same SES

Required:

  • absence of health __
  • adherence to feeding recommendations
  • absence of maternal smoking
  • absence of significant morbidity
168
Q

List of Motor Milestones

A 
Sitting with slight support - 2.3 months
Partial/complete thumb opposition - 4.9/6.9 months
Sit alone momentarily - 5.3 months
Standing with furniture - 8.6 months
Walks with help - 9.6 months
Standing alone - 11.0 months
Walking alone - 11.7 months
Jumps off floor (both feet) - 23.4 months

know order and whole months

169
Q

Rate Limiters

A

Infant must develop a certain system to attain a certain milestone and parental handling can alter rate of development

170
Q

First Child Syndrome

A

Period of prolonged holding (less time in prone position) - delayed onset of crawling
May cause other delays but will catch up

171
Q

Cerebral Palsy (what is it? what causes it?)

A

Disorder that permanently affects muscle tone, movement and motor skills

Caused by damage to motor control centers of developing brain

Prediction: >37.5% delay in major motor milestones

172
Q

Locomotion

A

The act or capability of moving from place to place

173
Q

Are we born with early locomotion?

A

No, certain motor milestones must first be achieved

174
Q

Crawling

A

AKA army crawl

Moving on hands and abdomen

175
Q

Creeping

A

Moving on hands and knees

176
Q

Locomotion Progression for Infants

A

1) Crawling
2) Low creep - stomach slightly elevated
3) Rock back and forth in high creep
4) Creeping with arms and legs working alternatively

177
Q

What to keep in mind at all times when considering human motion

A

The environment must AFFORD certain things: a continuous path, flat surface, sufficient friction for balance

178
Q

Walking is the first form of upright, bipedal locomotion. What is it defined as?

A

50/50 phasing between right and left legs

Period of double support followed by period of single support

179
Q

Walking: Stance phase takes up __% of gait and consists of _, _, _ and _

A

60% of gait

Consists of: heelstrike, footflat, midstance and pushoff

180
Q

Walking: Swing phase takes up _% of gait and consists of:

A

40% of gait

Consists of: acceleration, midswing and deceleration

181
Q

Goal and Characteristics of Early Walking

A 
Maximize stability and balance
Characteristics: 
- arms in high guard (falling)
- feet toed out and wide apart
- independent, discrete steps (not smooth, one followed by another)

Eventually:

  • trades stability for mobility
  • stride length increases (absolute=longer legs and relative)
  • base of support reduced
  • opposition (arms and legs)
  • pelvic rotation
  • middle guard then low guard
  • double knee lock in heelstrike and acceleration
182
Q

By age _, essential components of advanced walk are present

A

4

183
Q

Young adults have very little walking development and changes represent __

A

Individual variation

e. g. weight loss or gain
e. g. injury

184
Q

Walking in Older Adulthood

A
  • maximizing stability
  • out-toeing increases
  • stride length decreases
  • reduced pelvic rotation (decreases walking economy)
  • velocity decreases
  • objects used as balance aids
185
Q

Any changes associated with the aging process can alter __

A

Locomotion

e.g. osteoarthritis

186
Q

Most common form of osteoarthritis. What is it?

A

Rheumatoid arthritis
Autoimmune disease, living in chronic pain, usually symmetric
Warning signs: stiff, fatigue, loss of function secondary to pain, gets better with movement, swelling in joints

187
Q

Running (when does it occur? defined by?)

A

Occurs 6 to 7 months after walking starts
Defined by:
50/50 phasing between right and left legs
Flight or float phase followed by single support

188
Q

% Breakdown of Running

A

Stance - 40%
Float - 15%
Swing - 30%
Float - 15%

189
Q

Early Running Characteristics

A

Stability over mobility (return of older behaviours)

  • arms in high guard
  • limited ROM
  • shorter stride
  • little pelvic rotation
190
Q

Proficient Running Characteristics

A

Less stability, more mobility

  • increase stride length
  • heel to butt
  • narrow base of support
  • trunk rotation
  • right angle elbow
191
Q

Later Running Characteristics (Older Adults)

A 
Increase stability and balance
Decreases in:
- stride length
- ROM
- number of strides
- speed
192
Q

Robert Marchand Case Study

A

105 YO cyclist

Age 101: 1hr cycling = 24.25 km
Age 103: 1 hr cycling = 26.92 km (+11%)
VO2max increased from 31 to 35 (+13%)
Peak power increased from 90 to 125W (+39%)

193
Q

Running to Mitigate Deterioration

A

Impaired walking performance is a key predictor of morbidity in older adults
Older runners had 7-10% better walking economy than older walkers (long-distance
corridor walk)
AND similar walking economy to sedentary young adults
Walking economy - energy to get from A to B

Conclusion: running is still better than walking - runners are more efficient at any speed

194
Q

Jump

A

Person propels self off group with one or two feet; lands on two feet

195
Q

Hop

A

Person propels self off ground with one foot; lands on same foot

196
Q

Leap

A

Person propels self off ground with one foot; extends flight period, and lands opposite foot

197
Q

Children begin simple jumping before age _. Explain Early Jumping Characteristics

A

Before age 2
Characteristics:
- jumping only vertically
- no or limited preparatory movements

198
Q

Proficient Jumping Characteristics

A

Preparatory crouch to maximize takeoff force
Both feet leave ground at same time
Arm swing used
For vertical jump - force is directed downward, body extended
For horizontal jump - force is directed down and backward, knees flexed during flight

199
Q

Rate Limiters in Jumping

A

Development in enough forces to bring body into air - muscles used/strength
Injury

200
Q

Jumping is a two part movement. What are the movements?

A 
Hip extension 
Knee extension
Smaller contributors: 
Hip flexion - iliopsoas
Plantar flexion - tib ant
201
Q

Muscles involved in Hip Extension

A 
Gluteus maximus
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Long head biceps femoris
Adductor magus
202
Q

Muscles involved in Knee Extension

A

Simultaneous with hip extension for vertical jump

Quadriceps femoris

203
Q

Ingredients of High Jump

A

1) Fast run up
2) Plant foot on ground ahead of body - reduce forward momentum
3) Lift arms and other leg up
4) Low to ground at beginning of jump

can’t change path of projectile once ou have left the ground

204
Q

Gallop and Slide are asymmetric. Explain

A

Gallop: forward step on one foot, leap on another
Slide: sideways step on one foot, leap on other

205
Q

Skipping is __

A

Symmetric

Skip: alternating step-hops on one foot, then on the other

206
Q

Proficient galloping, sliding, skipping

A

No longer need arms for balance
In skipping, arms swing opposite to legs and provide momentum
During galloping and sliding, child can use arms for another purpose (clapping)

207
Q

Ballistic Skill (what is it? examples)

A

Performer applies force to an object to project it

e.g. throwing, kicking, striking

208
Q

Forms of Throwing

A

Underhand (one or two hand)
Sidearm
Overarm (one or two hand)

209
Q

What are the two ways to assess throwing?

A

Product measures (outcome): accuracy, distance, ball velocity

Process measure (movement pattern): developmental sequences

210
Q

Early Overarm Throwing Characteristics

A 
Mostly arm action
Elbow pointed up
Throw executed by elbow extension alone
No step
Note: excessive trunk flexion
211
Q

Proficient Overarm Throwing Characteristics

A

Preparatory windup (weight shift and trunk rotates back)
Uses opposite leg, long step and differentiated trunk rotation
Upperarm and forearm lag
Movements sequential to transfer momentum

212
Q

Differentiated Trunk Rotation

A

The trunk is rotating and the upper body lags (one level moving ahead of the next level - upper level behind)

213
Q

Example of Developmental Changes in Overarm Throwing: Trunk Rotation

A
  1. None, no forward or backward movement
  2. Block rotation
  3. Differentiated rotation
214
Q

When people are throwing for accuracy they may__

A

Revert to more developmental steps for accuracy-based throws than for forceful throws

215
Q

To kick a ball you must have ___ and __ to make contact

A

Perceptual abilities

Eye-foot coordination

216
Q

Early Kicking Characteristics

A

No step taken with non-kicking leg
Kicking leg pushes forward
Immediate retraction of leg - no follow throw
No trunk rotation

217
Q

Proficient Kicking Characteristics

A

Preparatory windup - trunk rotated back, kicking leg cocked, knee bent
Trunk rotates forward
Movement is sequential: thigh rotates forward, then lower leg extends
Arms move in opposition to legs

218
Q

Key Positions for Kicking (a-e)

A

a) Maximum hip retraction
b) Forward movement of the thigh and continued knee flexion
c) Ball contact
d) Post impact follow through
e) Knee flexion as follow through proceeds

219
Q

Punting

A

The ball is dropped from the hands

More difficult than kicking for children

220
Q

Early Punting Characteristics

A

Ball is tossed up rather than dropped
Contacts ball with toes rather than instep
Short step

221
Q

Proficient Punting Characteristics

A

Arms extended to drop ball before final stride
Arms then drop to sides and move in opposition to legs
Leaps onto support leg, swing punting leg to make contact
Punting leg is kept straight; toes are pointed

222
Q

Proficient Sidearm Striking Characteristics

A

Sideways preparatory stance and long step
Differentiated trunk rotation
Horizontal swing throw large ROM (arm extended)
Sequential movements
e.g. tennis forehand

223
Q

Overarm Striking has two forms:

A

Without an implement (e.g. volleyball serve)

With an implement (e.g. tennis serve)

224
Q

Developmental Changes in Overarm Striking: Racket Action

A

Similar for overarm throwing

  1. No racket lag
  2. Racket lag - some wrist extension/flexion
  3. Delayed racket lag - very far behind movement of arm
225
Q

Prehension

A

Grasping of an object typically with hands

226
Q

What did Halverson do?

A

Proposed phases on grasping development
Filmed infants grasping 1 inch cube
Saw transition from power (raw and gross movement) to precision (fine motor skills)

227
Q

First 5-Month Grasping Development (Halverson)

A 
Birth: no contact
1 month: limited contact
2 months: grasp with entire hand
3 months: adjust hand position
4 months: grasp with thumb on top
5 months: grasp with fingers only
228
Q

What did Hohlstein do?

A

Studied grasping but used different object sizes and shapes
Found this influenced type of grasp (by 9 months - lag in visual perception)
Weren’t able to find the same progression shown previously - this told them that learning plays an important role in prehension

Neuromotor maturation is not the only structural constraint

229
Q

Body Scaling

A

Adapting to characteristics of task/environment to fit overall size of the body part
Helps us carry out similar action because body scaled ratio is constant

230
Q

Why do infants struggle with grasp accuracy?

A

Visual systems are lacking

Need to know hand size relative to object size

231
Q

Pick-Me-Up for Infants Exploratory Skills Study

A

Used sticky mittens to see if it benefited kids in early development of skills needed to grasp an object
It was successful

232
Q

Prereaching

A

Within the first few months infants exhibit random arm movements

233
Q

How do infants learn to reach?

A

By experience they learn to control their arms

234
Q

Infants become consistent in moving hand to the mouth at _ to _ months

A

3 to 4 months

Same time that prereaching transitions to reaching - no longer ballpark reaching

235
Q

By _ months, they open the mouth in anticipation of the hand’s arrival

A

5 months

236
Q

Bimanual Reaching and Manipulation - Timeline

A

2 months: infants show bilateral arm extension and raising
4-5 months: infants reach for objects with both arms
12 months: pulling apart and insertion actions (lego)
early year 2: infants use objects as tools
end of year 2: complementary activities (holding lid while taking something out)

237
Q

Reaching improves when __

A

Infants can maintain postural control (6-7 months)

238
Q

A research study looked at RT, MT, tapping and coordination. They found that manual performances declines after age __. What else declines? __ is maintained in well practice tasks like pouring a glass of water

A

Age 50
Strength declines
Decline in grip strength
Coordination of hand writing

Accuracy is maintained but coordination/strength are not

239
Q

Rapid Aiming Movements (what is it? examples)

A

Involved an initiation and acceleration to peak velocity; then deceleration and termination phase

e.g. putting key in ignition, flicking a light switch - bring hand to switch but slow down as your approach

240
Q

What happens in rapid aiming movements in older adults?

A

Older adults have longer deceleration phases

241
Q

Ataxia

A

A neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination and control of muscle movements

Neurodegenerative disease that affects the cerebellum

Last 10% of movement is severely affected when you have ataxia

242
Q

Fundamental Manipulative Skill (what is it? example)

A

Person gains control of an object

e.g. catching

243
Q

Catching (where do we catch and what makes catching more difficult?)

A

Objects caught in hands is more ideal so they can be manipulated

Intercepting an object makes catching more difficult

244
Q

Early Catching Characteristics

A

Children initially position arms and hands rigidly
Trap ball against chest
Turn head away or close eyes

245
Q

Proficient Catching Characteristics

A

Hands “give” with the ball to absorb force
Move side to side or forward and back to intercept ball
Fingers pointed up for high balls and down for low balls

246
Q

Developmental Changes in Catching: Arm Action

A
  1. Little response
  2. Hugging/trapping
  3. Scooping
  4. Arms “give”
247
Q

Developmental Changes in Catching: Hand Action

A
  1. Palms up
  2. Palms face each other
  3. Palms to object flight and size
248
Q

Developmental Changes in Catching: Body Action

A
  1. No adjustment
  2. Awkward adjustment
  3. Proper (smooth and coordinated) adjustment
249
Q

How do you assess catching?

A

To compare, task and environmental constraints must be consistent
Number of catches in set of attempt can be scored
Developmental sequence can provide information about movement process

250
Q

Coincidence-Anticipation Tasks

A

Anticipating completion of movement to coincide with arrival of moving object

251
Q

Interception success is related to __, __, __, and __

A

Ball size
Speed
Trajectory
Other task and environmental constraints

252
Q

How do children learn to arrive at the right place? What is this called?

A

Children learn through experience to move to keep similar angle of gaze
Constant bearing angle strategy - try to keep angle same - easier to catch

253
Q

Older adults are __ on coincidence-anticipation tasks. But they can improve with practice.

A

Less accurate and more variable

254
Q

Typical golfers practice __ repetitions in a __ period of time

A

Frequent repetitions

Short period of time

255
Q

Studies show that blocked practice performance has better results than random practice. Why?

A

Because it is easier but NOT better

256
Q

When a player wants to see permanent enhancement in learning __ results in better retention and __ than blocked practice

A

Random practice results in better retention and transfer than blocked practice

257
Q

Random practice also add __ which elevates effort during practice

A

Desirable difficulty

258
Q

Structure practice conditions like __

A

Game conditions

259
Q

Contextual Interference

A

Interference generated due to context in which the skills are rpacticed
Randomizing - Produces decrements in performance during practice but enhances learning of tasks (decrease success in practice = success long term)

260
Q

Elaborate Processing Hypothesis

A

Random practice promotes more elaborate processing; allows for more comparative and contrastive analyses of the actions required during competition setting

More opportunities to compare and contrast shots - good brain practice for game

261
Q

Reconstructive Hypothesis

A

Promotes a more reconstructive method of processing performance. Forced to forget and remember how to do the actions over and over again

Some people suggest randomized mini blocks

Growth and Development (1 decks)

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