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Bio - Music & Speech > Midterm > Flashcards

Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A
  • specialized multimodal
  • respond to action as well as sound, sight of same action and event related, not modality related
  • neurons that react to self and others
  • active role in sensory-motor integration and speech representation
  • abnormal in autism
  • involved in the perception and comprehension of motor actions
  • facilitate higher-order cognitive processes (imitation and language
  • found in broca’s area
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2
Q

What is consonant

A

pleasant sound

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3
Q

What is dissonant

A

unpleasant sound

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4
Q

What are the four patterns of intonation found in the music and language radio lab

A

praise
stop
attention
comfort

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5
Q

According to the music and language radiolab how do sound enter the brain?

A
  • pulses of electricity

- stream of clicks

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6
Q

What creates a consonant sound

A

when the sound or meter is rhythmic and regular the brain likes it

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7
Q

What creates a dissonant sound

A

when the sound or meter is chaotic, not rhythmic, disorderly (electrically) it makes you feel uncomfortably, don’t like it

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8
Q

How many ram’s horns (shofars) would it take to blow down the walls of Jericho?

A

407,380

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9
Q

What were some other issues brought up about actually blowing down the walls of Jericho

A
  • blowing off heads of those in the front row
  • how to get them all close enough to wall
  • how to focus the sound all to one spot
  • creating a loud enough sound (177 db+)
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10
Q

What were the two programs used to recreate symphonies in the “Musical DNA” Radiolab?

A

EMI - Experiments in Musical Intellegence

HAL

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11
Q

What cultures hold an advantage to musical learning?

A
  • those with tonal languages because they have the ability to learn notes & pitch as they are learning language as well
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12
Q

What are some shared resources for speech and music

A
  • both benefit from human specific anatomy of the vocal tract
  • fixed developmental time course
  • rule based permutations of discrete elements
  • -ex. phonemes - sentences
  • -ex. notes to songs
  • syntax & semantics
  • rhythm - auditory and motor synchronization in music and speech
  • ability to develop both without formal training - related to functional organization of the nervous system
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13
Q

What is the mission of music therapy?

A
  • music used to address physical, emotional, cognitive and social needs
  • after assessing the strengths and needs of each client, the music therapist provides the treatment including creating, singing, moving to and or listening to music
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14
Q

What are some uses of musical therapy?

A
  • psychiatric disorders
  • medical problems
  • sensory impairments
  • substance abuse
  • interpersonal problems
  • aging
  • physical handicaps
  • developmental disabilities
  • communicative disorders
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15
Q

Where do music therapists work?

A
  • hospitals
  • schools
  • community centers
  • private practice
  • psychiatric facilities
  • prisons
  • training institutes
  • universities
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16
Q

What are some specific issues we discussed as being helped by musical therapy?

A
  • Parkinson’s Disease
  • Aphasia
  • Stuttering
  • Dyslexia
  • Autism
  • Alzheimer’s
  • Dementia
  • Stress
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17
Q

Why might music experience enhance language abilities - OPERA hypothesis

A

O - overlap (biology/signal) between music and speech
P - precision required for music processing is greater than for speech
E - emotion induces plasticity
R - repetition - extensive practice tunes system
A - attention focusing on details of sound

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18
Q

What is melodic intonation therapy

A
  • singing to exaggerate normal melodic content of speech
  • rhythmic tapping
  • brain network for singing - arcuate fasciculus (AF)
  • post treatment - increase in number of fibers and fiber volume
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19
Q

Why is music biologically powerful?

A
  • strengthens our cognitive-sensorimotor connections
  • hearing is linked to somatosensory, motor, emotions and executive functions
  • ability to re-wire the brain
  • power as a healing tool
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20
Q

Continuous EEG

A
  • Electroencephalography
  • ongoing observation, scalp voltage
  • in addition to resposes you “want to see” (auditory) there are other components, other unrelated activity (heartbeat, breathing, blinking)
  • some measure fourier analysis of EEG
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21
Q

Evoked Potential EEG

A
  • event related potential
  • auditory stimulus presented, brief ‘snapshot’ of activity is taken
  • includes stimulus related activity as well as other activity (heart rate, breathing)
  • several snapshots linked to timing of stimulus averaged together, deminishes things unrelated to stimulus, time-locked elements remain
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22
Q

MEG

A
  • magneto-encephalography
  • electrical currents in brain create magnetic fields
  • sensors measure electrical fields at surface of the skull
  • patterns of magnetic fields at skull allows interpretation of location of current generators within brain
  • uses multi sensory array
SQUID
Superconducting 
Quantum 
Interference 
Device
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23
Q

fMRI

A
  • functional magnetic resonance imaging
  • magnetic field aligns atomic nuclei
  • nuclear alignment perterbed by radio wave pulse
  • nuclei absorb radio waves, then emit them while returning to alignment
  • different emissions for different nuclei, in different physical and chemical conditions
  • neural activity requires energy, uses oxygen
  • Blood Oxygen Level Dependent response: BOLD
    • different radio wave emissions dependent upon blood oxygen level
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24
Q

What are some limitations to the EEG

A

less spatial resolution

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25
Q

What are some potentials for the EEG

A

inexpensive

good temporal resolution

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26
Q

What are some limitations to the MEG

A

Expensive
Not commonly available
sensitive to electrical interference

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27
Q

What are some potentials for the MEG

A

highly sensitive

good temporal resolution

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28
Q

What are some limitations for the fMRI

A

expensive
vascular and respiratory artifacts
sensitive to motion artifacts

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29
Q

What are some potentials for the fMRI

A

good spatial resolution

available

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30
Q

What is the mismatch response

A
  • response to stimulus change, echoic memory
  • objective measure of auditory discrimination
  • elicited by minimal acoustic differences
  • passively elicited, does not require behavioral task
  • originates in the auditory thalamus and cortex, non primary pathway especially
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31
Q

Acoustic differences that elicit a mismatch response

A
  • frequency
  • intensity
  • sound patterns
  • duration
  • location
  • speech
  • phonetic content
  • interstimulus interval
  • music
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32
Q

Mesmatch negativity

A
  • neural index of a preattentive auditory processing response to any discriminable change in an incoming stimulus stream
  • cortical
  • doesn’t need attention
  • use to be able to tell the difference between certain sounds
  • preconscious recognition
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33
Q

Aspects of speech and music perception which can be accessed with human electrophysiology

A
  • acoustic-phonetic
  • semantics
  • melody/harmony
  • prosody
  • acoustic patterns and regularities
  • experience dependent
  • syntax
  • rhythm
  • hemispheric specialization
  • emotion
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34
Q

ITD

A
  • Interaural Time Differences
  • low frequencies
  • horizontal plane
  • MSO
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35
Q

ILD

A
  • Interaural Level Differences
  • high frequencies
  • head shadow effect
  • vertical plane
  • LSO
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36
Q

MSO

A
  • Medial Superior Olive

- about 2/3 of MSO neurons are excited by stimulation of each ear and are ITD sensitive

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37
Q

LSO

A
  • Lateral Superior Olive
  • the majority of neurons recieve excitatory input from the ipsilateral ear and an inhibatory input from the contralateral ear, an arrangement that imparts ILD sensitivity to all these cells
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38
Q

Primary Pathway:

A
  • cochlea to cortex
  • responds only to auditory stimuli
  • tonotopic
  • good frequency tuning
  • good phase-locking to stimulus
  • “Superhighway”
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39
Q

Non-primary Pathway:

A
  • multisensory (e.g. auditory/visual
  • non-tonotopic
  • broad frequency tuning
  • less time-locked to stimulus
  • more likely to be plastic
    “Country Road”
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40
Q

Corticofugal System

A
  • feed forward
  • feedback
  • reciprocity
  • this is descending efferent pathway
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41
Q

Neural facilitation and Inhibition

A
  • through associated learning and recurring stimulation of behaviorally relevant input
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42
Q

Functions of the corticofugal system

A
  • attention modulation
  • gain control
  • feature combination
  • tuning sharpened
  • stimulus patterns strengthened
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43
Q

What is the ascending pathway

A
  • cochlea
  • 8th nerve
  • cochlear nucleus
  • soc
  • LL
  • IC
  • MGB
  • AC
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44
Q

What is fourier analysis

A

breaking up a complex waveform into frequency, amplitude, phase

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45
Q

What is fourier synthesis

A

putting together several simple waves to create one complex waveform

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46
Q

What does the nervous system do to help us?

A
  • attention
  • picks up on patterns
  • tuned with practice
  • we can learn, train to do things
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47
Q

What do we know that the auditory nerve is pretty good at?

A
  • phase locking
    o What happens to phase locking as it goes through the the pathway
    o Is it getting worse or what?
    • Can’t phaselock to a certain range
    • Extracting other features, focusing on the onset
    • Don’t need to keep investing energy encoding everything over and over again – it’s doing other stuff
48
Q

What are the Four types of neuron responses that can be seen in the cochlear nucleus

A
  • Primary-like units
  • Similar to auditory nerve
  • Pauser & build-up units
    • -Big gap after the onset, and then starts responding again for the duration of the stimulus
  • Chopper units
  • Onset units
49
Q

Four types of response types in the Inferior Colliculus

A

o Sustained
o Chopper (onset type)
o Onset sustained
o Pauser

50
Q

What does the ascending system do?

A

send information up to the brain

51
Q

What does the descending system do?

A

send information from the brain to the sensory organs, modulates the information coming in, modulates by experience, top down

52
Q

Olivocochlear response

A
  • SOC to hair-cell, modulates the hair-cells
  • influenced by attention
  • efferent system that can modulate the outer hair cells by processing demands
53
Q

What are some differences between music and speech?

A
  • frequency timing and modulation more in speech
  • frequency spacing is more fine in music
  • speech has faster moving elements
  • music has slower moving elements
  • language requires temporal processing
  • music requires spectral processing
54
Q

What are some differences between vowels and consonants?

A
  • harmonics, vowels are more like puretones and consonants are more like clicks
  • intensities
  • durations
55
Q

How does processing change as the sound moves up the auditory pathway

A
  • Processing gets more and more specialized as you go up the pathways
56
Q

To be able to have beat synchronization and rhythm you need…and this may have developed through evolution as a consquence of …

A

sensorimotor integration

vocal learning

57
Q

Music therapy is used to maintain or increase…

A
  • physical, mental, social and emotional function

- quality of life

58
Q

Music therapy is used to reduce

A
  • delusions
  • anxiety
  • agitation
  • irritability
59
Q

Activation of the limbic system through stress creates

A
  • increased heart rate
  • increase respiratory rate
  • increased blood pressure
60
Q

Why is music biologically powerful?

A
  • strengthens cognitive-sensorimotor connections
  • hearing is connected to somatosensory, motor, emotions & executive function
  • ability to rewire the brain
  • power as a healing tool
61
Q

What is filtering?

A
  • process by which frequency specific components of a signal are removed or degraded
62
Q

What is neural integration

A

multiple inputs affect output

63
Q

what is neural synchrony

A

output depends upon precise input timing

64
Q

What is the bottom-up system’s role in perception and perceptual learning?

A
  • Functional reorganization
  • increase in synaptic efficacy & local neural connectivity
  • training/sensory experience
65
Q

What is the top-down system’s role in perception and perceptual learning?

A
  • associative learning and attention
  • neural facilitation and inhibition
  • modification of sensory input
66
Q

Efferent mechanisms that lead to perceptual improvement

A

Enhance task-relevant information

Prune task-irrelevant information

67
Q

What are the three semicircular canals

A
  • horizontal
  • posterior
  • anterior
68
Q

What are the two otolith organs

A
  • utricle

- saccule

69
Q

What are the fluids in the vestibular labyrinth

A

perilymph - within the bony labyrinth

endolymph - within membranous labyrinth

70
Q

What is the ampullae of the semicircular canals

A
  • The cupula is sensitive to the fluid motion in the semicircular canals.
  • Because of inertia and viscous drag, the endolymph lags behind head rotation and pushes the cupula in the opposite direction of the head rotation
71
Q

What is the VOR

A

As the semicircular canals sense movement, they send signals to the muscles of the eyes, neck, trunk, arms and legs, which allows a person to maintain a stable position even as the body and head undergo complex motions.

The vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) allows us to maintain our gaze fixed on an object as we move

72
Q

What is the frequency range for human hearing?

A

16 - 16,000 Hz

73
Q

What is the frequency range for human speech?

A

250 - 8000 Hz

74
Q

What is the frequency range for music?

A

Piano 25 - 4000 Hz

75
Q

Vowels

A 
High intensity
Frequency energy: < 2kHz  (300 - 2000Hz)
Certain frequency regions are enhanced 
	and others attenuated 
Bands of enhanced energy - formants
Duration: tens - hundreds of ms
76
Q

Consonants

A

Low intensity
Frequency energy is broad: (500 - 8000Hz)
Brief bands of enhanced energy - formant transitions
Duration: tens - tenths of ms

77
Q

Acoustics of consonants

A

Voiced - the vibrations of the vocal cords (vertical striations in spectrograph)
Stop - Gap, followed by a burst of noise for voiceless stops
or sharp beginning of formant structure for voiced stops
Determined by F2 and F3 formant transitions
Fricative - Random noise pattern, especially in higher frequencies ~ 2000 - 6000 Hz
Nasal - Formant structure similar to vowels but with nasal formants ~ 250, 2500, 3250 Hz
Liquid - Formant structure similar to vowels but formants ~ 250, 1200, 2400Hz.

78
Q

Building blocks of musical sound

A
  • Pitch
  • Timbre
  • Timing
  • Loudness
79
Q

Pitch (ANSI)

A
  • attribute of audtory sensation in terms of which sounds may be ordered on a scale extending from low to high
  • perceptual experience of frequency
80
Q

What is the perfect fifth?

A

The most harmonious relationship after the octave is called the perfect fifth: frequency ratio 3/2
- pythagorean tuning

81
Q

Beating

A

when two frequencies are close to one another and it creates what seems like an amplitude modulation

  • dissonance
  • ex 100 and 105 hz
82
Q

What are the ingredients of emotional expression?

A

Music uses the brain’s desire to “solve the puzzle” to manipulate harmonic expectation, tension and resolution… these are the ingredients of emotional expression.

83
Q

Timbre

A

that aspect of a sound that distinguishes if from other sounds of the same pitch, duration and loudness

84
Q

What is the difference between pitch and timbre perception?

A

Pitch perception related to fundamental (F0) periodicity

Timbre perception related to high frequency spectrum (HF spectrum)

85
Q

What are the five aspects of musical timing?

A
  • duration
  • rhythm
  • beats
  • meter
  • tempo
86
Q

What are three problems do you have perceiving music with a hearing loss

A
  • reduced frequency selectivity with hearing loss
  • ability to perceive dissonance and consonance is impaired
  • also affects perception of timbre
87
Q

Compare acoustic vs electric hearing (normal vs cochlear implant)

A 
Normal: 
- sound converted into a mechano-chemical signal 
- thousands of frequency channels 
- good frequency resolution 
Cochlear Implant 
- sound converted to an electrical signal & delivered directly to AN 
- 12-24 electrodes 
- poor frequency resolution
88
Q

How do you increase plasticity?

A
  • with active practice, not passive exposure
89
Q

What makes patterns important for hearing?

A

• Our sensory systems are wired to extract patterns
– rapid and automatic
• Patterns underlie language and music.
• Patterns are “intrinsic” to prediction
• Patterns aid us when listening in noise and learning to read
• Individual differences in pattern detection
• Pattern detection changes with experience – Lifelong: Musical and Language experience
– Short‐term: exposure to a pattern

90
Q

What is statistical learning?

A
  • learning resulting from the automatic extraction of patters within the on-going stimulus stream
91
Q

How do we (our brains) find patterns?

A

calculate statistical relationships between objects

92
Q

How does statistical learning underlie language learning?

A

Knowing the patterns of a language help us to segment word boundaries from continuous speech

93
Q

Why do patterns facilitate the development of expectation

A
  • patterns are “intrinsic” to prediction
  • based on patterns, we develop templates for what things should sound like
  • when patterns are violated, this is registered in the brain
94
Q

Memory trace

A

to identify patterns, we need to keep track of what has happened before

95
Q

place code

A

frequency coding through tonotopicity

96
Q

phase locking

A

frequency coding by neuronal firing at same period as stimulus

  • Maximum rate of phase-locking decreases at each higher level of the auditory system
  • Frequency of mid-high intensity sounds best coded via phase-locking

~ 5000 Hz AN
~ 2000 Hz CN
~ 1000 Hz LL and IC
~ 200 Hz AC

97
Q

rate code

A

coding of frequency or intensity by neuron’s discharge rate

- faster firing rate for higher frequency or louder sound

98
Q

ensemble code

A
  • population of neurons code frequency, intensity, time
99
Q

What is a monotonic response?

A

goes up, stays up

100
Q

What is a non-monotonic response?

A

goes up, comes back down

101
Q

What are the four reponse types in the inferior colliculus?

A
  • sustained
  • chopper (onset type)
  • pauser
  • onset sustained
102
Q

What did we learn from the barn owl experiment?

A

IC neurons tuned to specific ITD/ILDs create auditory map
Auditory map combines with visual map in OT
Altered visual input (prisms) adjusts auditory and visual maps (experience-dependent plasticity)
Changes in IC neuronal tuning powered by OT (top-down)
Sensitive period when plasticity effects are most evident
Environmental factors can mediate plasticity
Altering input in smaller increments allows older owls to express plasticity similar to young owls

Brain is plastic throughout life, what is best way to learn something new?

103
Q

Cochlea

A

Transduces sound waves to neural impulses via inner hair cells

104
Q

Auditory Nerve

A

Encoding generally mimics stimulus sound properties

Best phase-locking of system - up to ~5000Hz

105
Q

Cochlear Nucleus

A

– Enhanced amplitude modulation
First structure with multiple neural response types allowing particular aspects of stimulus to be emphasized (e.g. AM, onsets)
Phase-locks to ~2000Hz

106
Q

Superior Olive

A

Important for sound localization

107
Q

Inferior Colliculus

A

– Non-primary pathway begins

Phase-locks up to ~ 1000Hz

108
Q

Thalamus

A
  • Processes information from all over brain (MGN auditory)

Neural responses become more specialized

109
Q

Cortex

A
  • Most complex response types, each neuron highly specialized to respond to combinations of stimulus attributes
    Best at onset encoding
    Association cortices important for language function
    Phase-locks up to ~200Hz
110
Q

Tonotopicity

A

Neurons tuned to particular frequencies organized in frequency bands at each level of the auditory system
Place code
Frequency of low intensity sounds best coded tonotopically

111
Q

Frequency Encoding

A
  • tonotopicity
  • phase-locking
  • tuning curves are simplest at lower levels of the auditory system, and become more complex at each higher level
  • both tonotopicity and phase-locking are present at each level
112
Q

What are some of the themes from the 8th nerve to cortex? (Processing)

A
  • Specialization of response types begins in the cochlear nucleus and becomes more specialized higher up the system
  • -Allows stimulus aspects to be emphasized
  • —Modulation enhancement
  • —Onset enhancement
  • Noise affects sound processing at all levels of the system
  • Top-down feedback influences responses of lower levels
  • Response properties malleable at all levels with training/sound exposure
  • Language deficits and sound deprivation (hearing impairment / deafness) alter auditory function
  • Inhibition and specialization increases throughout the system
113
Q

Encoding of Speech and Music Summary

A

Vowel and Tone Encoding
Frequency of pitch, harmonics and formants encoded by both phase-locking and tonotopicity
As move up the system, lower phase-locking limits means vowels and tones are encoded more through place code

Consonant and Attack Encoding
Requires precise encoding of onsets 
Consonants 
Percussive sounds
Attack portion of tones
Tonotopicity used for encoding frequency of short onsets of sounds (need longer duration to phase-lock)

Some neurons prefer frequency movement in a particular direction or speed
Pitch movement in music
Formant transitions in speech

114
Q

What is amusia?

A

Amusic individuals have normal hearing AND normal language
YET impaired performance on basic musical tasks pitch discrimination melody ID sing out of tune among other things…

115
Q

Summary - Neural encoding of music is complex!

A

Neural encoding of music is complex!
Spectral and temporal components are interrelated, many layers combine together
Auditory system constantly solving puzzles: convergence, divergence, fine-tuning of signal along the pathway
Musical context and expectation can shape our perception
Life experience (e.g. playing music) can affect many aspects of sound processing

116
Q

What proof do we have that the efferent system is important/it exists?

A
  • Single neurons change sensitivity based on attention and reward
  • barn owls learning and map shifts
  • kids understand noise, babies learning speech - understand and learn to produce
  • if you divert your attention to another sensory domain your auditory system decreases in firing because the attention is in another domain
  • OAEs
117
Q

What does the non-primary pathway consist of?

A
  • CN
  • SOC
  • IC
  • MGN

Bio - Music & Speech (4 decks)

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