Midterm Flashcards
What is a theory ?
Is an orderly, integrated set of a statements that describes, explains, and predicts behaviour.
Why theories are vitals? (2 reasons)
- They provide organizing frameworks for our observations of people, guiding and giving meaning to what we see
- Theories that are verified by research provide a sound basis for practical action.
continuous development
a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with
discontinuous development
emerge at specific times
take place in stages
what is the nature
heredity information
what is the nurture
forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences
what is the plasticity
Plasticity: as open to change in response to influential experience
In the first half of the 20th century how theorists views the development process?
it was widely assumed that development stepped at adolescence.
Adulthood was viewed as a plateau and aging as a period of decline
in 1900 life expectancy
50 years old
today’s life expectancy
78,5
4 assumptions about development of the lifespan perspectives
development is
Life long
Multidimensional and multidirectional
Highly plastic
Affected by multiple, interacting forces
the prenatal period what is the approximate age range and the description
conception
one-celled organism transform
into a human body
infancy and toddlerhood period what is the approximate age range and the description
birth to 2 years
dramatic changes in body and brain
motor, perceptual and intellectual capacities
first intimate ties
early childhood period what is the approximate age range and the description
2-6
play years motor skills refined language sense of morality ties with peers
middle childhood period what is the approximate age range and the description
6-11 years
school years athletic abilities logical thought literacy skills self-understanding morality friendship
what is a development multidimensional ?
affected by an intricate blend of biological, psychological, and social forces.
according the the lifespan perspective what is the multiples forces that development is influenced by
biological
historical
social
cultural
what is age-graded influence and is it a normative or nonnormative
normative
• Events that are strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable
what is History-graded influences and is it a normative or nonnormative
normative
explain why people born around the same time – called cohort
what is nonnormative influences and is it a normative or nonnormative
nonnormative
do not follow a predictable timetable
Who is the father of the theory of evolution and what is his 2 related principles
Darwin
natural selection
survival of the fittest
What is the normative period and who found it?
Stanley Hall
development as a maturational process – a genetically determined series of events that unfold automatically,
What is the mental testing movement and who create it?
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
Paris asked them to find a way to identify children with learning problems
they constructed the first successful intelligence test
the Stanford-Binet intelligence scale
Explain what is the psychoanalytic perspective
people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations.
Who influences the psychoanalytic perspective (2 persons)
Freud
Erickson
Explain Freud’s theory
he examined the unconscious motivations of his patients and constructed his psychosexual theory, which emphasized that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives
His theory has 3 parts
Id – basic biological needs and desires
Ego – The conscious, rational part of personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses into acceptable behaviours.
Superego or conscience – children conform to the values of society
Explain Erikson theory
o In his psychosocial theory, He emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development
Give Freud’s Stages and ages
- oral (birth-1)
- anal (1-3)
- phallic (3-6)
- latency (6-11)
- genital (ado)
Give Erikson stages and ages
- basic trust versus mistrust (birth-1)
- autonomy versus shame and doubt (1-3)
- initiative versus guilt (3-6)
- industry versus inferiority (6-11)
- identity versus role confusion (ado)
the other stages not needed
Explains the behaviourism
according to behaviourist: directly observable events – stimuli and responses – are the appropriate focus of study.
Who is the pioneer of behaviourism?
John Watson and his with rat experience
Who is Skinner?
he found the operant conditioning
Explain what is the social learning theory
Albert Bandura
emphasized modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning
Give the name of Piaget’s theory
cognitive-developmental theory
explain what is the cognitive-developmental theory
children actively construct knowledge as thy manipulate and explore their world.
What are the Piaget’s stages in the cognitive-develppmental theory and the years
Sensorimotor: thing by acting, infant invent ways of solvong sensorimotor problems ( birth-2)
preoperational: use symbols, development of language, thinking lacks the logic (2-7)
concrete operational: reasoning becomes logical, organize objects into hierarchies (7-11)
explain what is information processing theory
The human mind might also be viewed as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows
regard the thought processes studied – perception, attention, memory, planning, categorization of information, and comprehension of written and spoken prose
explain what is the developmental cognitive neuroscience
psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brains and the developing person’s cognitive processing and behaviour patterns.
during first 5 years= brain highly plastic
what is ethology
Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behaviour and its evolutionary history
What is imprinting
It refers to a limited time span during which the individual is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviours
takes places during an early, restricted period of development
what is the sensitive period
time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences.
Explain the Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory
make comparisons across cultures, and between ethnic groups
examining the relationship of culturally specific beliefs and practices
Vygotsky’s perspective, focuses on how culture is transmitted to the next generation
According to him, social interaction is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community’s culture.
Explains the ecological system theory
Bronfenbrenner who create it
views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
in the ecological system theory what is the microsystem
consist of activities and interaction in the person’s immediate sourrounding
all relationships are bidirectional
in the ecological system theory what is the mesosystem
connection between microsystems
in the ecological system theory what is the exosystem
social settings that do not contain the developing person but nevertheless affect experiences in immediate setting
in the ecological system theory what is the macrosystem
cultural values, laws, customs, and resources
in the ecological system theory what is the chronosystem
the temporal dimension of the model
people are both the produce and the producer of their environment
What are the common points in this theories
psychoanalytic
ethology
emotional and social development
What are the common points in this theories
cognitive-developmenta
information processing
sociocultural
change in thinking
What are the common points in this theories
behaviourism social learning evolutionary developmental psychology ecological system lifespan
human functioning
tells if the following theories are continuous of discontinuous developments
- psychoanalytic
- behaviourism and social learning
- cognitive-developmental
- information processing
- ethology and evolutionary developmental
- sociocultural
- ecological system
- lifespan perspective
- psychoanalytic= discontinuous
- behaviourism and social learning=continuous
- cognitive-developmental=discontinuous
- information processing =continuous
- ethology and evolutionary developmental= both
- sociocultural= both
- ecological system = N/A
- lifespan perspective= both
tells if the following theories have one corse of development of many
- psychoanalytic
- behaviourism and social learning
- cognitive-developmental
- information processing
- ethology and evolutionary developmental
- sociocultural
- ecological system
- lifespan perspective
- psychoanalytic = oen course
- behaviourism and social learning= many
- cognitive-developmental= one
- information processing = one
- ethology and evolutionary developmental= one
- sociocultural = many
- ecological system= many
- lifespan perspective= many
tells if the following theories have relative influence of nature or nurture?
- psychoanalytic
- behaviourism and social learning
- cognitive-developmental
- information processing
- ethology and evolutionary developmental
- sociocultural
- ecological system
- lifespan perspective
- psychoanalytic = both
- behaviourism and social learning= nurture
- cognitive-developmental= both
- information processing = both
- ethology and evolutionary developmental= both
- sociocultural =both
- ecological system = both
- lifespan perspective= both
name the common research methods
systematic observation
self reports
the clinical or case study
What is the systematic observation methods
go into the fiels
naturalistic observation
limitation: not the same opportunity
to deal with this sets up a laboratory
What is the self report method
aks the participant to provide informations of their perception, thoughts, attitudes…
same questions in the same way
what is the clinical or case study method
interviews
observation
test score
What is the naturalistic observation method, his strength and limitation
observation in natural contexts
+: participant in everyday life
-: cannot control conditions
What is the structured observation method, his strength and limitation
laboratory, where conditions are the same for everyone
+: equal opportunity
-: not observation in everyday life
What is the clinical interview method, his strength and limitation
flexible interviewing procedure
+: come as close as possible to the way participants thinks in life
-: not accurate reporting infos
What is the structured interview method, his strength and limitation
self report instruments with same questions
+: comparisons
-: no depth information and innacurate reporting
What is the clinical or case study method, his strength and limitation
a full picture of one individual’s psychological functioning with interviews, obervations, test score
+: rich, descriptive insights
-: biaised by researcher’s theoretical preferences
What is the ethnograpy method, his strength and limitation
observable of a culture
+: more complete description
-: may be biaised by researcher’s values
what are the general research designs
Correlational
experimental
modified experimental
What is the correlational design
look at relationships between participants’ characteristics and their behaviour or development
limitation: cannot infer cause and effect
use correlation coefficient
positive relationship= one variable increase the other increase
negative relationship = one variable increase the other decrease
What is experimental design
permits inference cause and effect
independent variable: cause changes
dependent variable: will change
random assignment
What is the modified experimental design
conduct in laboratory and in field
control
What are the designs for studying development
longitudinal
cross-sectional
sequential
What is the longitudinal design
studied repeatedly, and changes are noted as they get older.
+:
tracks the performance of each person over time
examine relationships between early and later events and behaviors
-:
Participants may move away or drop
repeated study, people may become more aware of their own thoughts
become “test-wise”. performances improves
cohort effects
What is the cross-sectional design
Groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time
problem:
not provide evidence about development
We cannot tell if important individual differences exist
What is the sequential design
conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences).
advantages:
comparing participants of the same age who were born in different years.
longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons
What are the ethic codes
Protection from arm informed consent privacy knowledge of results beneficial treatment
How many chromosomes do we have
46, 23 pairs
chromosomes are made of
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
what is a gene
a gene is a segment of DNA
how is called the process that the DNA duplicate
mitosis
what is a gamete
a reproductive cell : sperm or ovum
how the gametes are formed
through a cell division process called meiosis
when the sperm and ovum unit the result is called the new cell is called….
a zygote
what are the autosomes
not sec chromosomes
how is called each form of a gene
allele
what is the X-linked inheritance
o When a harmful allele is carried on the X chromosomes, X-linked inheritance applies.
o Males are more likely to be affected because their sex chromosomes do not match
What is genomic imprinting?
alleles are chemically marked, so that one pair member is activated, regardless of its makeup
children will develop diabetes if their father have
children will develop asthma if mother have
what is mutation
sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA
caused by ionizing radiation
What is the amniocentesis
needle is inserted through the abdominal wall to obtain a sample of fluid in the uterus
14 weeks after conception
what is chorionic villus sampling
very early in pregnancy, 9 weeks after conception
tuve is inserted into the uterus through the vagina
cells are examined for genetic defects
What is fetoscopy
a small tube with a light to inspect the fetus for defects of the limbs and face
sample of fetal blood to diagnose hemophilia and anemia
15 and 18 weeks after conception
What is ultrasound
high-frequency sound waves are beamed at the uterus
gross physical defects
combined with resonance imaging
what is maternal blood analysis
2nd month
to see elevated level of alpha-fetprotein, kidney disease neural tube defect
what is ultrafast magnetic resonance imaging
supplement ot ultrasound
what is preimplantation genetic diagnosis
after in vitro fertilization
What are the direct influences in family contexts
parents are firm but warm, children tend to comply with their requests.
And when children cooperate, their parents are likely to be warm and gentle in the future
What are the indirect influences in family contexts
marital relationship is warm and considerate, mothers and fathers
What are the 3 related variable in SES
Years of education
The prestige of one’s job and the skill it requires, both of which measure social status
Income, which measure economic status
What is the size of an ovum?
1/175 inche diameter
What consist the period of zygote
2 weeks long
By the 4th day, 60 to 70 cells exists that form a hollow, fluid-filled ball called a blastocyst
there is the implantation
- at the 7th and 9th day implantation occurs
- the trophoblast (protective outer layer) multiplies fastest It forms a membrane, called the amnion, that encloses the developing organism in amniotic fluid
the placenta and umbilical cord:
-By the end of the second week, cells of the trophoblast form another protective membrane – the chorion, which surrounds the amnion
- the placenta starts to develop
- the placenta permits food and oxygen
What consist the period of embryo
from implantation to 8th week
week 2-3 embryonic disk forms 3 layer of cells
- ectoderm: nervous sustem and skin
- mesoderm: muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, internal organs
- endoderm: digestive system, lungs, urinary track, glands
second month
- eyes, ears, nose, jay, neck form
- internal organs more distinct
- 7th week production of neurones begin
What consists the period of the fetus
9th week to the end
3rd month
- organ, muscles and nervous system become organized and connected
- fetus kicks
- 12th week, external genitals are well-formed, sex can be detected with ultrasound
- heart can be heard with stethoscope
second trimester
- 17 and 29 weeks can fell baby
- vernix protect skin
- lanugo help vernix
third trimester
- baby can survive if born
- age of viability; 22 and 26 weeks but need oxygen
- gain more than 5 pounds and grow 7 inches
- fetus recieve antibodies
What is the definition of a teratogens
environmental agent that causes damage
The harm of teratogens depend on which factors?
dose
heridity
other negative influences
age
in the period of the zygote does teratogens can affect the baby
rarely have an impact if they do the baby will die
in the embryonic period does teratogens can affect the baby
YES, serious defect
in the fetal period does teratogens can affect the baby
damage is usually minor , organs can be strongly affected
What are the effects of prescription drugs
thalidomide
diethylstilbestrol (DES)
Accutane
Thalidomide in 1960: gross deformities arms and legs
diethylstilbestrol (DES) 1945-1970 prevent miscarriages: adolescent daughters have high rate of vagina cancers
Accutane for acne: effects in the 1st trimester, eye, ear, skill, brain, heart and immune system abnormalities
What is the fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
Slow physical growth
A pattern of three facial abnormalities
Brain injury, evident in small head and impairment in at least three areas of functioning
What is the partial alcohol syndrome (p-FAS)
Two of the three facial abnormalities just mentioned
Brain injury, again evident in at least three areas of impaired functioning
Mother of children with p-FAS generally drank alcohol in smaller quantities, and children’s defects vary with the timing and length of alcohol exposure
What is the alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND)
In which at least three areas of mental functioning are impaires, despite typical physical growth and absence of facial abnormalities
What can be the environmental pollution effect on baby
eating that contain mercury: disrupt production and migration of neurons
PCB in electrical equipment: low birth weight, skin deformities, brain-waves abnormalities, delayed cognitive development
Lead: prematury, low birth, brain damage, physical defect
Dioxins in incineration: brain, immune system, thyroid damage in babies
What is the RH factor incompatibility
When the mother is Rh-negative (lack the Rh blood protein) and the father if Rh-positive the baby may inherit the father’s Rh-positive blood type
If even a little of a fetus’s Rh-positive blood crosses the placental in the Rh-negative mothers’ bloodstream, she begins to form antibodies to the foreign Rh protein
If these enter the fetus’s system, they destroy red blood cells, reducing the oxygen supply to organs and tissues
Miscarriage, mental retardation, hearth damage. And infant death can occur
It takes time for the mother to produce Rh antibodies, so firstborn children are rarely affected
What are the 3 stages of birth
Dilatation and effacement of the cervix:
- longest stage (12 to 14 hours)
- contraction of the uterus
Delivery of the baby
- 50 minutes
- strong contractions
- urge to push
Delivery of the placenta
- few final contraction
- 5 to 10 minutes
What is the difference between preterm and small for date infants
preterm: born several weeks or more before their due date
small for date: below the expected weight
small for date is more dangerous for the baby than preterm
What is the rapid-eye movement (REM)
brain-waves activity when asleep is remarkably similar to that of the waking state
almost 50% of a newborn sleep time
What is the non-rapid-eye movement (NREM)
to body is almost motionless, heart rate, breathing and brain waves activity are slow
What is the body weight at 5 months
15 pounds
What is the body size and weight at 1 years
32 inches and 22 pounds
What is the body size and weight at 2 years
36 inches 30 pounds
what are the 2 growth patterns
cephalocaudal trend: head develops more rapidly than the lower part of the body
Proximodistan trend: from the center of the body outward
Explain the neurobiological methods
permits researchers to study its developing organization and the activity of its regions
electroencephalogram (EGG), brain-wave patterns are examined for stability and organization
event-related potentials (ERPs) detect the general location of brain-wave activity
most promising of these methods is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
fMRI detects changes in blood flow and oxygen metabolism throughout the brain magnetically, yielding a colourful, moving picture
near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). flexible optical fibers attached to the scalp using a head cap, a baby can sit on the parent’s lap and move during testing
What are the regions of the cerebral cortex
language areas
the cortical regions: the frontal lobe
the prefrontal cortex: body movement and thought
the left hemisphere is responsible of….
verbal abilities
positive emotions
processing information in a sequential, analytic way, a good approach for dealing with
the right hemisphere is responsible of….
Spatial abilities
negatives emotions
processing information in a holistic, integrative manner
What are the effects of an early, prolonged institutionalization
generalized decrease in activity in the cerebral cortex
What are the 2 forms of appropriate stimulation?
experience-expectant brain growth
experience-dependent brain growth
What is the experience-dependent brain growth
occurs throughout our lives
additional growth and refinement of established brain structures ad a result of specific learning experiences
What is the experience-expectant brain growth
rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences
occurs early and naturally
What are the states of arousal
6-9 months: 2 naps
2 years: needs 12 to 14 hours sleep
3-5 years: still need naps
what is marasmus
wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients
appears in the 1st year of life when a baby’s mother is too malnourished to produce enough breast milk
what is Kwashiorkor
unbalanced diet very low in protein
between 1 an 3 years of age
What is the classical conditioning
a neutral stimulus is paired, with a stimulus that leads of a reflective response
nervous system makes the connection between the two stimuli
What is the operant conditioning
infants act, or operate, on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behaviour change the provability that the behaviour will occur again
A stimulus that increases the occurrence of a response if called a reinforcer
what is the name of the specialized cell in motor areas of the cerebral cortex that underlie the imitation capacity
mirror neuron
what is the gross-motor development
control over actions that help infant get around in the environment
crawling, standing, walking
What is the fine-motor development
smaller movements such as reaching and grasping
in the dynamic system theory what 4 factors influence the formation of new skills?
central nervous system development
body’s movement capacities
goals the child has in mind
environmental supports for the skill
at what age the infant have hands coordination
4-5 months
at what age an infant can focus with his eyes
around 2 months
at what age infant can see colours like an adult
4 months
what is the visual acuity of an 6 months baby
20/80
at what age an infant have the same visual acuity than an adult?
4 years
what is the first depth cue
motion
at what age an infant perceive emotional expression
5 months
at what age an infant can match faces with voices
3 to 4 months
What is Piaget’s ideas about cognitive change
specific psychological structures organized ways of making sense of experience called schemes
two processes
- adaptation: building schemes through direct interaction with the environment
—-assimilation: use of current schemes to interpret the world
—- accommodation: create or adjust schemes
- organization: rearrange schemes by linking them with other schemes
At what age the infant make the A-not-B error while searching an object
8 to 12 months
What are Piaget’s sensorimotor stages and age that occurs?
reflective schemes: birth-1 month
primary circular reaction: 1-4 months
secondary circular reactions: 4-8 months
coordination of secondary circular reactions: 8-12 months
tertiary circular reactions: 12 to 18 months
mental representation: 18 months to 2 years
In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage what is the reflective schemes stage
newborn reflexes
In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage what is the primary circular reaction
simple motor habits centered around the infant’s own body
limited anticipation of events
In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage what is the secondary circular reactions
actions aimed at repeating interesting effects in the surrounding world
imitation of familiar behaviours
In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage what is the coordination of secondary circular reactions
intentional behaviour
ability to find a hidden object in the 1st location
A-not-B error
improved anticipation of events
imitation of behaviours
In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage what is the tertiary circular reactions
exploration of the properties of objects by acting on them in novel ways
imitation of novel behaviours
ability to search in several location for a hidden object ( A-B search)
In Piaget’s sensorimotor stage what is the mental representation
internal depiction of objects and events
sudden solutions to problems
ability to find an object that has been moved while out of sight (invisible displacement)
deferred imitation
make-believe play
In information-processing several aspects of the cognitive system improve during childhood, what are they
basic capacity of its stores especially working
speed with which information is worked on
functioning the of central executive
What is the attention to habituate and recover to novel visual stimuli for a newborn baby and a preterm baby
3 to 4 minutes
What is the attention to habituate and recover to novel visual stimuli for a 4-5 month baby
5 to 10 seconds
How long a 2 months baby can remember how to do something
1 to 2 days after training
How long a 3 months baby can remember how to do something
1 week
How long a 6 months baby can remember how to do something
2 weeks
At what age a baby can categorize objects?
second half of the first year so, 18 months and older
What are the theories of language development?
the nativist perspective
the interactionist perspective
Explain what is the nativist perspective
according to Chomsky, language is etched into the structure of the brain
child have language acquisition device (LAD) an innate system that contains a universal grammar common to all languages
Explain what is the interactionist perspective
interaction between inner capacities and environmental influence
children make sense of their complex language environment by applying powerful cognitive capacities of a general kind
At what age babies start to make vowel noise
2 months
at what age babies start to babbling
6 months
at what age the baby starts to say words
18 to 24 month
