Midterm Flashcards

Question

aeolian deposition

Answer 1

deposition by air

Answer 2

- aeolian deposition - enough pressure that sand will solidify into sandstone after a long time - like Zion?

Answer 3

deposition due to water

Answer 4

- fluvial deposition - Badlands National Park, south Dakota - Uinta Basin, Utah - huge piles of sediment over time

Answer 5

unaltered rock

Answer 6

rocks formerly under a lot of heat and pressure, now on surface and starting to erode away

Answer 7

sedimentary

Answer 8

-just saying “this rock is older than this one”-how old rock is relative to another rock

Answer 9

- prior to Huvon, people thought world was shaped by giant biblical flood - Father of modern geology - to Huvon, the world was very old-has been here forever, will be here forever - not completely true but idea of a very old earth was right - one of the observations that led to this hypothesis was seeing layers of rocks over layers of rocks that were at 90 degrees-was trying to explain how you could get this formation over time - said rocks formed-some geologic event titled rocks up-top part eroded away-new sediments laid on top - Concepts of “Deep Time” and“Uniformitarianism” - Opposed to “Catastrophism” - Ideas popularized by Charles Lyell - "We find no vestige of a beginning -- no prospect of an end.” The Theory of the Earth

Answer 10

- Concept of “Deep Time” – large amounts of time and recurring processes can account for the observations we make today - “Present is the key to the past”–(only) events that occur today also happened in the past - Opposed to Catastrophism/Neptunism–One large event (a flood) account for the geologic features we see - our view is between the 2-yes, the things happening/here today were happening/here millions of years ago, but there are some catastrophies that changed the world-like the asteroid killing the dinosaurs

Answer 11

Principle of Superposition Principle of Original Horizontality Principle of Cross-cutting relations Principle of Included Fragments

Answer 12

older rocks under younger rocks

Answer 13

- rock layers (strata or “Beds”) are originally deposited horizontally - folded layers near Lulworth Cove, England, indicate that originally horizontal sedimentary beds were deformed after formation - Grand Canyon shows how rocks usually are deposited horizontally

Answer 14

older rocks may be cut by younger rocks or other geological features-typical of igneous intrusions

Answer 15

- if fragments of one material are included in another-then the included material must be older - all clasts in a sedimentary rock must be older than the rock in which they are found-be careful in dating, not to just date those older pieces-will get inaccurate date

Answer 16

- gap in time in the sedimentary record - sometimes we’re missing time periods-erosion takes rock away, move rocks away, will be missing some layers or pieces - even if missing rock in one area can usually find it in another though? - an unconformity occurs when no beds are deposited or when part of the rock record is removed by erosion

Answer 17

- Index fossils are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods a - although different sediments may look different depending on the conditions under which they were laid down, they may include the remains of the same species of fossil. - what makes a good index fossil? - be widely distributed-Pollen makes a good index fossil, being wind-borne - be readily preserved in the fossil record-Birds, for example, would make bad index fossils, because although there are many species which have wide ranges, they fossilize very poorly: their skeletons come apart easily - have a short time of deposition as a proportion of the fossil record, since we want to use it to identify a particular chapter in the history of deposition: it should represent a geographically broad but temporally narrow slice of the record - Easily distinguishable - Widespread - Short periods of geologic time - Abundant - Called “Fossil Correlation” & Biostratigraphy - These principles allowed for the creation of the “Geologic Time Scale” - The various Eras, Periods, and Epochs were defined by assemblages of fossils - But how did we put dates on them?

Answer 18

- maybe they lived in diff environments-will affect types of rocks found - or in one area didn’t have type of rock-area missing - animals move and migrate-that will screw it up

Answer 19

- actually getting age in numbers-putting a time/year on something - best way to do this is through radiometric dating

Answer 20

- So far we’ve only been talking about relative dating–age of things relative to one another - We need a method of absolute dating–how far in the past did something occur - Things with regular periodicity: - Earth’s rotation - Earth’s revolution - Pendulums - Vibrations of crystals and atoms - Radioactive decay occurs at a constant rate – provides the basis for a clock

Answer 21

``` The decay activity of an isotope is proportional to the number of radioactive parent atoms ΔΝ/Δτ= -λΝ Parent (P) decays to Daughter (D) The age equation: t = 1/λ × ln(1 + D/P) ```

Answer 22

- Crystallization of the rock resets the clock-so igneous rocks are used for dating, NOT sedimentary rocks or the actual fossils - There is no daughter isotope at the time of crystallization - No parent or daughter has entered or left the sample since crystallization - Under most contexts these are completely reasonable assumptions, but there are methods to correct for violations of them (e.g., taking multiple measures)

Answer 23

It’s not possible to date all rocks by radioactive isotopes - e.g., can’t directly determine the age of deposition of most sedimentary rocks - but, the record of life on this planet is preserved in sedimentary rocks as fossils!

Answer 24

- date absolute (formation) age of igneous intrusions that cross-cut sedimentary layers - date minerals in volcanic ash and lava flows (which are deposited “instantaneously”) and use principle of superposition to bracket ages of adjoining sedimentary strata

Answer 25

Ma/mya – Mega-annum/millions of years ago | Ga/bya – Giga-annum/billions of years ago

Answer 26

150 million years

Answer 27

1 million years

Answer 28

245 mya-end of Paleozoic/Permian period-beginning of Mesozoic Era/Triassic Period

Answer 29

first hard parts-500mya

Answer 30

- center -solid iron core - outer core-molten iron - layer in between-the mantle-gooey rock-rocks under enough pressure and hear that they’ll actually flow, the way lava does, the way a lava lamp does - crust-outside coating

Answer 31

- outside coating-very thin relative to the rest of the layers - we know this because of earthquakes - pressure of earthquake refracted as travel through layers - the crust is relatively rigid-doesn’t flow like the mantle beneath it-it breaks (faults) instead of flowing - 2 types of crust: continental crust and oceanic crust

Answer 32

- continental crust a little less dense than oceanic crust-so continental coast floats a little bit higher-but continental thicker (like in km) - Continental crust is thicker, less dense, and a lot older than oceanic crust

Answer 33

- where crust has broken - faults are fractures in the crystal rocks - rocks can handle a lot of stress, but eventually they break or fracture, forming faults - depending on the direction of stress, rocks form different kinds of faults - 3 types: normal fault, reverse or thrust fault, and strike-slip or transform fault

Answer 34

take crust and pull it apart-eventually so much that starts to break and fall down

Answer 35

push up crust over other crust-Sunset Blvd.

Answer 36

move side to side relative to each other-one area slides past another area-San Andreas

Answer 37

-size doesn’t matter-just cuz it’s big doesn’t mean it’s a dino

Answer 38

underneath their body, like mammals-upright posture-w lizards and crocodiles, legs on sides (but recently found crocodiles that existed before dinos with upright posture)

Answer 39

no-dinos weren't aquatic

Answer 40

skull holes

Answer 41

dinos didn’t fly-that’s a closely related group but not dinos-but some dinos eventually evolved flight

Answer 42

- modern day birds-all dinos-hummingbirds to ostrichs | - birds (dinos) and crocodiles (closest living group to dinos) are only dino-like things still alive

Answer 43

-pubism oriented diff-1 forwards 1 backwards (will talk about better later)

Answer 44

-number of known dino genera=600 -number of known dino species=720 over time dinos became much more diverse -probably number of dino genera=1800 -Probable number of dinosaur species≈2200

Answer 45

``` Fish-31,000 Amphibians=6,500 Reptiles=9,000 Birds=10,000 Mammals=5,500 Insects=1,000,000 Plants=320,000 ``` we keep finding more dinos

Answer 46

- he was a physician - published a monograph of dino discoveries in 1822-first publication about dinos-in England-named the first dino-named Iguanadon (an ornithopod) and other taxa

Answer 47

- Oxford University, England - First to name a dino-Megalasaurus (a theropod) - thought it was a giant lizard - coined the term “palaeontology” - taught Charles Lyell (father of modern geology)

Answer 48

- head of the British Museum of Natural History - Brilliant Anatomist - Coined the term “Dinosauria” - actually thought dinos might be endothermic (warm-blooded) - believed in evolution (although not of the evolution of man) and worked on some of Darwin’s specimens

Answer 49

- fake dino park-restaurant inside one dino | - didn’t think anything that big would be active-sluggish, giant lizards

Answer 50

- discovered in 1861 - Lake Jurassic - Solnhofen Limestone, Germany - Recognized as a transitional form between dinos and birds - added to later editions of Darwin’s Origin of Species as an example of evolution

Answer 51

- dino craze hit US - mostly led by Othniel Charles Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope-worked for competing museums on east coast - Both found the large collections of bones in the American West-Both did much to promote dinosaur research in the late 1800’s

Answer 52

* 1831-1899 * Helped found the Yale Peabody Museum * Worked at the US Geological Survey and was president of the National Academy of Sciences * Named 26 genera of dinosaurs, including Apatosaurus, Allosaurus, Diplodocus, Stegosaurus, and Triceratops

Answer 53

* 1840-1897 * Worked at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia * Published over 1,400 papers * Named more than 1,000 vertebrate species

Answer 54

- gastroliths (“stomach stones”) - dinosaur eggs - dinosaur national monument - cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry - Mongolia expeditions by Roy Chapman Andrews - Coelophysis mass burial in New Mexico

Answer 55

- Solidified dinosaur ancestry of birds - reinvestigated the idea of dino ancestry of birds - his reconstructions of deinonychus were much more accurate and bird-like - knew their wrists could fold back like birds do

Answer 56

- Jack Homer-Dino mamas-child care and behavior of dines, similar to modern birds - Bob Bakker-popularized idea of dino endothermy-dino warm-bloodedness - moving away from lumbering, lazy view of dinos

Answer 57

- these guys were the start of paleobiology - more new species found in the last 25 years that in all the years previous - much new exploration in Africa, South America, and Asia - First Antarctic dinosaurs - explosion of feathered dinosaurs-many dinosaurs had some sort of feather covering - use of new technologies-computer monitoring - asteroid impact theory of dinosaur extinction-prior to that, many ideas as to why they went extinct, now we know there was a meteor that was the nail in the coffin for dinos

Answer 58

- What are the origins of dinos? - What are the details of bird origins? - How “warm-blooded” were they? - How smart were they - Did they care for their young? - How fast did they move? - Why did large size evolve multiple times?

Answer 59

- were in media before this, but after the 60s, became much bigger part of the media - toys, movies, cartoons-The Land Before Time, Barney - Jurassic Park is probably the most famous

Answer 60

- something that has been tested time and time again and continues to be tested - we are taught these as if they are the truth, but in actuality they are well-supposed theories, paradigms, or laws-ex: gravitation, evolution, atomic, plate tectonics etc.-they all make predictions and explanations - but they are always at risk of being replaced by more inclusive, more sophisticated description of nature - all scientific ideas are subject to challenge and modification. This is the strength of science! - an open debate of theories weeds out the weaker ones until a strong consensus is reached - results must be repeatable - scientists police the quality of research through peer review in journals-research that does not use quality data and methods is not published - science builds on itself-doesn’t work in a vacuum-research builds on previous work and confirms, explains, or disputes it - science asks more questions than it answers-we’ll never know everything in science

Answer 61

- Science is not a democracy! - not everyone’s voice gets to be heard - science is a rigid meritocracy, where only the hypotheses that can explain the most evidence are accepted - there are no “centrist" views in science - There is little room for ‘debate’ around the big issues - There are disagreements, but usually only on the periphery of the well-established laws and theories

Answer 62

- culture - Science can be influenced by culture, and in turn influences culture - Religion is a part of culture too, as are any other man-made institutions (government, universities, etc.) - Nevertheless, there are empirical facts that science/culture is based on – e.g., the Earth goes around the sun - “You don’t get to have your own facts.”

Answer 63

-non-scientific pursuits -reasoning that is evidence-based-making decisions, evaluating news stories and their sources, Evaluating news stories and their sources, voting -The key is the evidence -Empirical – phenomena independent of perceptions and pre-conceived notions -You don’t get to make up your own facts!

Answer 64

- Everything in the natural world varies - As scientists, we quantify that variation, and minimize it in our measurements - Statistics is the mathematics specific to describing variation and accounting for it

Answer 65

- Deluvian Flood - Uniformitarianism - Lyell & Chuck D - Land bridges - Upheaval Theory - Continental Drift

Answer 66

- Alfred Wegener 1915 - looked at maps-south america fits pretty well into Africa - first line of evidence: continents fit together like a puzzla - first to come up w name Pangea (“all the earth”) - people came up w Laurasia (top half of earth) and Gondwana (bottom half) concepts/words later

Answer 67

- another line of evidence - looked at distribution of animals that can’t swim across oceans - found them on many different continents/countries/islands - matched up ranges of animals when put together pangea

Answer 68

- evidence for large scale glaciation in the past-can see direction they moved by looking at rocks-scratches on the rocks they plow over - saw these glacial striations and rocks all over the world-looked fairly random-didn’t really make sense-but when put together pangea made sense, pattern-central point of glaciation and glaciers moving different directions from that spot

Answer 69

- Rejected because of a lack of a mechanism - Continents can’t move through the dense basalt of the ocean floor-duh! - Evidence explained away as coincidence and with land bridges

Answer 70

- Magnetic rocks (e.g. magnetite and basalts) record the record of both the inclination and reversals - So… if you have a record of magnetic rocks you tell when and where (latitude) they are from, or, conversely, where the pole was at that time

Answer 71

- Naval sonar operator and geologist - Mapped the topography and magnetism of the ocean floor - What did he find: - World’s longest mountain range - Volcanoes and heat output at the crest of the mountains - Gradation of sediment thickness outward - Magnetic “stripes” the same on both sides - Hess even had a mechanism-convection! - “Continents” are just pieces of continental crust rafting along on ocean basalts, and together they make up plates

Answer 72

-It took scientists many years to accept it, but the forces generated by thousands of degrees of heating actually overcome the high viscosity of rocks. In other words, the mantle convects.

Answer 73

- Down deep sea trenches, of course! | - Spreading and sinking are happening all over the world!

Answer 74

Plate Life Cycle (Part 1)-rift opening (divergent margin) and spreading (pulled apart) to make passive margins-eventually if get pulled apart enough get a new oceanic basin-because it’s a pulling motion get lots of normal faults as the crust gets pulled apart Plate Life Cycle (Part 2)- subduction (convergent boundaries) and mountain building -2 plates come together, mountains and volcanos form

Answer 75

-starting to get new oceans -Lots of normal faulting. Can lead to new oceanic plates The new East African Ocean!

Answer 76

-Inactive continental shelf, with lots of deposition over old normal faults

Answer 77

Grand Canyon National Park

Answer 78

Not much-ex: Canadian Shield

Answer 79

stable center of continental plates

Answer 80

- Earthquakes at subduction zones | - note that the epicenters get deeper inward from the trench

Answer 81

- oceanic -oceanic (o-o) - e.g. Japan - oceanic - continental (o-c) - e.g. Andes and Pacific Northwest - continental - continental (c-c) - e.g. Himalayas - Subduction determined by density

Answer 82

- Mountain building - e.g. Japan, Caribbean - oceanic convergent boundary - denser oceanic crust goes under other oceanic crust - creates trench - crust that goes over-rumpled a little, creates mountains and volcanos?

Answer 83

- Mountain Building - e.g. Andes - ex: pacific northwest - oceanic crust goes under continental crust - continental convergent margin - trench created, then mountains/volcanos created on continental part that's rumpled

Answer 84

Evidence of old subduction

Answer 85

- Mountain Building - e.g. Himalayas - Continents collide with other continents or island arcs, usually with lots of thrust faults - convergent plate boundary - Main boundary thrust-Pakistan-thrust faulting near the Pakistan/Afghanistan border

Answer 86

- Where plates slide past one another with strike-slip faults - Either between continents or linking spreading ridges - There can be mountain building here as well due to the shape of the transform boundary - transform margin-e.g. CA's San Andreas

Answer 87

- A volcanos island or seamount is built up by extrusions from a hot spot, or source of magma, in the mantle - as the plate moves, the volcano is carried away from the source of magma and becomes extinct. The surface of the island can then be eroded to sea level, and reefs can grow to form an atoll. A new island is then formed over the hot spot - continued plate movement produces a chain of islands - the islands of the chain are progressively older away from the hot spot - ex: Hawaii, Yellowstone

Answer 88

- can cause there to be a lot of volcanic activity | - may contribute to how explosive Yellowstone eruptions can be

Answer 89

earthquakes: yes, many small, some bid along the transform faults volcanos: lots of oozing, slow

Answer 90

earthquakes: at normal faults early on, then nothing volcanos: none

Answer 91

earthquakes: yes, of varying depths volcanos: lots and violent

Answer 92

earthquakes: yes, of varying depths volcanos: yes, and violent

Answer 93

earthquakes: yes, along thrust faults volcanos: none after suturing

Answer 94

earthquakes: lots, of varying magnitudes volcanos: none

Answer 95

earthquakes: some associated with magma movement volcanos: lots of oozing making shield volcanos. Can be explosive if continental.

Answer 96

- everything was crammed together in one supercontinent-pangea - much of western US is underwater

Answer 97

- Appalachian mountains were big and new-they’ve been eroding since then - subduction going on in the west-volcanos that would become Sierra (mountains?) - sea level higher - eventually the Atlantic Ocean starts to form

Answer 98

heat rose due to convection, pulled apart crust, created normal faults, started to form this new proto-ocean, eventually spread to the point where have big new ocean-just like is happening in Africa now

Answer 99

Great Sief Dune, Egypt, Zion National Park

Answer 100

- Continental lithosphere (crust) and oceanic lithosphere meet-but the 2 plates that are moving are both oceanic, just 1 turns into land-passive continental margin where content meets water-island arc in middle of water, where the 2 oceanic plates meet - collision-cesation of subduction-island arc has moved closed to land now as the oceanic place moves over the other oceanic plate (which gets pushed down) - arc material (island) added to continent-continued collision, with deformation (island wrinkled)-incipient rupture is where water meets land (now the island)-old oceanic crust thats been pushed under other oceanic crust/slab may break off and sink - subduction commences with formation of new subduction zone. new arc forms on continental margin-where former island meets water is active continental margin - ocean-ocean boundaries can change to ocean-continent boundaries - the island arc gets sutured to the continent

Answer 101

Atlantic Coast

Answer 102

-there used to be a big relatively shallow seaway in middle of North America

Answer 103

- Subduction accompanied by inland thrust faulting - oceanic crust moves under continental crust (subducting Pacific plate moves under contintental margin)-trench created where plates meet-volcanos and batholiths form on land

Answer 104

the Wasatch Mtns.

Answer 105

- life - Determines dispersal routes - e.g. abelisaurids - Isolates groups so they evolve independently - e.g. ceratopsians are only found in Laurasia - Affects climate - e.g. dinosaurs in Antarctica

Answer 106

3,700mya or so, in the Archean Period | 4,400mya or so, in the Archean PEriod

Answer 107

3.5-3.8bya

Answer 108

- evolution doesn’t have much to say about the origin of life-about how life changes - we don’t know exactly - we have bits and pieces, theories - we do know what the earth looked like at that time - CH4(?), NH4(?), H20, N2, H2, H2S, CO2, maybe O2-all in atmosphere-a lot diff from today-mostly nitrogen, oxygen, and CO2 not - life changed the atmosphere - these compounds probably came from interstellar space! - Lots of energy around-Lightning, Volcanoes and Vents, UV light - no ozone! hits surface of earth now, but not as much, cuz now have ozone layer-didn’t have ozone layer back then, cuz didn’t have a lot of oxygen

Answer 109

- asked themselves can we simulate what this early earth looked like and see what happens-can we create life? - put it through this system - what they found wasn’t life but very complex molecules that we associate with life-so could get building blocks of life by those primitive chemicals in atmosphere

Answer 110

- some of the earliest fossils - microscopic, innocuous - found in very old sedimentary rock - to find the fossils: get rocks, cut in very thin slices, put under microscope, put light under it, look for fossils - there are some modern analogs of these today (still exist or similar creatures now)

Answer 111

- 3.5 Ga - there are a few big fossils (macrofossils) found around this time - don’t look like much - thought were just weird rocks, no fossils - but then actually found modern version of this-still alive today-get same structures in fossils - this was the final proof that these were evidence of past life - life is pretty simple-single cells that might have grouped together but nothing else really

Answer 112

- 3-1.5 Ga - these gave off oxygen, so oxygen started to build up in atmosphere-became more like today - sediment, has iron in it-and iron when exposed to oxygen rusts-so as these sediments was settling out of ocean-any oxygen rusted with sediment-got these really stripe-y rocks-big build up of oxygen in atmosphere rusting with rocks-this was evidence of oxygen in atmosphere-eventually reach kind of an equilibrium though-so don’t see these sorts of things today-but this was evidence that life was starting to change the world - Evidence of increased oxygen in the atmosphere

Answer 113

- before this, just prokaryotes-single cell organisms - symbiosis of bacteria-like organisms - forms the mitochondria, chloroplasts and possibly also the nucleus

Answer 114

- what’s challenging about looking at this fauna is none of it looks like anything we have today - this makes sense-part of evolution is that as we go farther and farther back in time, fossils should look more and more different - don’t really know what these creatures are-no comparison - multicellular - some of them were the first animal-like creatures

Answer 115

- primitive invertebrate animals need front and back end to make burrows - so burrow tells us animals like this existed - tells us life getting more complex at this time

Answer 116

- simple creatures | - looks vaguely like things today but don’t look quite right

Answer 117

- preservation is phenomenal-see soft and hard parts of animals, tracks - The Burgess Shale Formation, located in the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia, is one of the world's most celebrated fossil fields. It is famous for the exceptional preservation of the soft parts of its fossils. At 505 million years (Middle Cambrian) old, it is one of the earliest fossil beds containing soft-part imprints.

Answer 118

- things starting to look like today - crustaceans like shrimp existed, copepods - aquatic worms - terrestrial worms - trilobites - vertebrates!!! first ones: pikaia, amphioxus - predators like the opabinia, anomalocaris (2 meters!!), scary sea creatures, Amiskwia, Wiwaxia - HUGE diversity of species-Cambrian explosion

Answer 119

-The “Cambrian Explosion”-refers to the appearance in the fossil record of most major animal body plans about 543 million years ago. The new fossils appear in an interval of 20 million years or less. -huge diversity of species -possible causes: Evolution of the asshole Remnants of a Mass Extinction? Increasing complexity Predators Snowball earth?

Answer 120

- more primitive mammals have 1 hole-take in, digest, goes out same hole - more complex animals eat things through 1 end and expel out other - big deal-allows you to do more things, like burrow, more complex body plan

Answer 121

- or maybe they all died out, new ecosystem to be filled - after dinos, mammals take over and fill same niches - so maybe here happens too-1 cell things die off, then more complex animals created

Answer 122

-as animals get more and more complex start creating new environments, other animals can explore these environments, use then, evolve, become more complex

Answer 123

-or it’s an evolutionary arms race-that feedback led to more diversity

Answer 124

- the earth got cold enough that not just glaciers covering part of world, but ice covering entire earth - possibly a COMPLETE global glaciation in the Pre-Cambrian - so maybe new niches opened up because of this, or caused extinction which led to new species

Answer 125

animals that have a backbone

Answer 126

-evolution of bone (when swimming in the ocean, in the water lots of minerals in the ocean, we evolved?, need a way to store those minerals-bones evolved first then muscles and stuff?) -evolution of jaws -moving onto land-lungs and limbs -evolution of endothermy (constant body temperature)

Answer 127

- Agnathans-jawless fishes - Chondrichthyes –the cartilaginous fishes - Osteicthyes– the bony fishes - Sarcopterygii – the lobe-finned fishes

Answer 128

- Jawless Fishes - Extinct groups are taxonomically and morphologically diverse - Extinct groups had armored bodies and heads - 2 extant groups

Answer 129

- Cartilaginous fishes - Chimeras, Sharks, Skates, Rays - Have jaws - Some have oil filled liver for buoyancy - Cartilaginous skeletons

Answer 130

- Bony fishes - Most familiar fishes - Fins composed of a membrane supported by thin rays - Most have a lung (may be modified into swim bladder) - Most diverse of vertebrate groups (25,000 species)

Answer 131

- Lobe-finned fishes - actually have bones in their limbs-more muscular - Fins more muscular with small bones for support-homologous to the bones in early tetrapod limbs - Two extant groups – lungfishes & coelacanths. Much more abundant & diverse in the Paleozoic - Ancestors of the first tetrapods

Answer 132

fish species that moved to land-The history of the transition from fins to limbs in this fish is well documented.

Answer 133

- Middle to Late Paleozoic - Plants - ~420Ma - Invertebrates - ~410Ma - Especially the arthropods - Vertebrates - ~360Ma

Answer 134

- Escape predation - Less competition, at least early on - More resources (oxygen, food?) - Easier to move around

Answer 135

- Jaws first arise in the mid-Paleozoic - Allows for more efficient predators - ex: Dunkleosteus-up to 6m - So prey move into shallow water - Eventually “Flop” onto shore

Answer 136

- Less competition - especially for “founders” - Plants – competition for sunlight - Animals – competition for habitat space - More resources - Oxygen is much more plentiful in air - Plants – sunlight isn’t diffused in air like it is in water

Answer 137

• In Water -More friction -anywhere you push, you will get movement -But must always fight friction and density • In Air -Much less dense -easier to move through -Much less friction -must push against the ground

Answer 138

• First to colonize land • Mosses – small & first to invade land -some protection against desiccation (cuticle) -Need water to reproduce • Ferns - strong cuticle and support -Can regulate gas exchange (stomata) -Can transport nutrients and water and support themselves -SMll need water to reproduce • Seed plants – independent of water for reproduction

Answer 139

Invertebrates - Arthropods

Answer 140

-First animals to inhabit land -Probably many independent colonizations -Chelicerates (spiders, mites, etc.) -Millipedes and Centipedes -Insects (flightless) -Crustaceans (crabs) • Much more to the story

Answer 141

- algae, fungi, higher plants, monera (bacteria and other similar forms), viruses, protozoa, insects, and other animals - mostly insects/beetles-over 50% - still a large diversity though - 1,413,000 species - number of living animal species currently known: 1,032,000

Answer 142

- Support and Movement - endoskeleton with modified limbs - Anti-desiccation-scales or live near water - Gas exchange-Lungs - Air is easy to move in and out of lungs, and it carries a lot of oxygen - Sight and hearing become more important

Answer 143

- SMll a problem in the some vertebrates - Amphibians - Not just the adults - Reproduction requires water or eggs and larvae dry out

Answer 144

- still tied to the water-need to go to the water to lay eggs - Three extant groups - Salamanders and Newts - Caecilians - Frogs and Toads - Permeable skin – desiccates but allows for cutaneous respiration - Poison and mucus glands in skin - Metamorphosis from larval form to adult

Answer 145

- Much better adapted to the dry conditions on land - Desiccation - thick skin - Reproduction - amniotic egg

Answer 146

- dessication | - animals solved this by developing a hard egg to prevent dessication-the amniotic egg

Answer 147

circa 300mya | mammals group and birds, dinos, reptiles group converge to form "stem reptiles"

Answer 148

- The Paleozoic Era ends with a mass extinction event - late permian seas were teeming with life, and the land was equally marvelously diverse-but many species died in this extinction event

Answer 149

- Formation of Pangaea - Marine anoxia: Oxygen levels greatly depleted in oceans (no mixing!) - Sea level falls about 100 meters - Volcanic activity: huge basalt flow in Siberia about 251 Ma

Answer 150

49% of all marine families. 63% of all terrestrial families. Surviving families squeaked through at low diversity. This can be used to estimate that 80-95% of all marine species were lost. -but this big extinction made room for dinos -data on the recovery on land are sparse, but new groups replace formerly dominant forms

Answer 151

- A taxon (pl. taxa) is a grouping of organisms –e.g., a species, a genus, an order, etc. - We can define taxa on the basis of characters that all the members share - For fossil taxa, such as dinosaurs, these characters are usually parts of the bony anatomy

Answer 152

- Medially open acetabulum - Astragalus with ascending process - No postfrontal bone - Humerus with long deltopectoral crest - Femur with barrel-shaped head

Answer 153

- 3 or more sacral vertebrae - Backward-facing glenoid on shoulder girdle - Asymmetrical hand with ≤3 phalanges on digit IV - Cnemial crest on Cbia - Sigmoid shaped metatarsal III

Answer 154

- anterior (cranial-head) vs. posterior (caudal-tail) - dorsal (back) vs ventral (belly) - medial (midline) vs lateral (side) - proximal vs distal (on limps-towards body and away from the body, respectively) - these directions are absolute! - directions we use to describe humans and animals a bit diff cuz we walk upright

Answer 155

cranial-head

Answer 156

caudal-tail

Answer 157

on limbs-towards the body

Answer 158

on limbs-away from the body

Answer 159

- axial is rib cage, spine, skull | - appendicular is the arms and legs, pelvis, shoulder bones (bones that attach the limbs to the body)

Answer 160

- holes through it - brain is tiny - orbit-eye hole - antorbital fenestra-hole in front of the eye - postorbital foramen-hole behind the eye - nostrils

Answer 161

-dinos missing this bone-behind the eye-hole there

Answer 162

Kinetic (multiple joints)-has advantages too-can change shape of mouth depending on what eating-can project mouth forward-allows for large gapes (like with snakes-can dislocate joint and open jaw up and move 2 sides of jar independently)-Most dinosaurs had kinetic skulls Akinetic (1 joint)-makes a much stronger bite-skull is more robust-what humans have (joint is at jaw)

Answer 163

ossified tendons | vertebral column

Answer 164

Arms (forelimbs) and Legs (hindlimbs) and their attachments

Answer 165

• Attaches forelimb (arm) to axial skeleton • Not a very strong connection • Glenoid fossa -Where the humerus meets the pectoral girdle -Faces caudally in dinosaurs -Pectoral Girdle of the ornithopod-Edmontosaurus-scapula connects to humerus

Answer 166

- large ridges/bumps on bones correlate with large muscles | - deltopectoral crest on both humans and dinos

Answer 167

- phalanges-digits (singular: phalanx) - metacarpals-palm - carpals-wrist - phalangeal formula-the number of phalanges on each finer - for humans: 2-3-3-3-3 - for dinos: digits 4&5 reduced-assymetrical “123 hand"

Answer 168

- acetabulum-hip socket - note the hole in the acetabulum, on bot the saurischian and the ornithischian - upright posture - typical dino has an open acetabulum-bent femoral head at right to angle to shaft of femur - dinos have inturned head of femur-mammals have this too but it was evolved separately-convergently evolved in mammals and dinosaurs

Answer 169

- dinosaurs are always standing on the tops of their toes-like dogs and cats-heel off off ground - the best equivalent to it in humans is when someone is in heels-they’re digiterating - so dinosaurs are always wearing invisible high heels-that is a characteristic that relates to better running

Answer 170

- Elongated lower leg bones-helps them get a longer stride with each step - Fused leg elements/parts of the limbs-makes the legs lighter - Reduced toes-helps reduce weight - Tiptoe walking - digitigrade - Make longer stride and lighter legs - Theropod dinosaurs had all these traits

Answer 171

- Cnemial crest of tibia-large ridges/bumps on bones correlate with large muscles (whenever have crests mean big muscles attaching there)-so they probably had big quads-attachment of “quads” - Ascending process of astragalus-fusion of bones make for stronger, lighter joints - all of these things pointing to dinos being good runners - reduce their hindfoot-some of the digits of their hindfoot-emphasize digits 2, 3, and 4 - so not only are they standing on their toes all the time, they’re only standing on 3 of them - many dinos have reductions of digits 1 and 5 in food-“234” foot

Answer 172

- sigmoid (s-shaped) metatarsals III - means the middle metatarsal is S-shaped so can cram together closely-when tie bones together makes them stronger and lighter - many creatures have some of these characteristics but dinos only ones that have them all, makes it unique - point to dinos at least primitively being runners

Answer 173

- 2 holes behind the orbit-origin of dinos? - "Stem reptiles"-made from synapsids (mammal-like reptiles-1 postorbital fenestra) and diapsids (birds/dinos/living reptiles-2 postorbital fenestras) merging, 300mya

Answer 174

- turtles are in this diapsid group-lots of diff hypothesis of where turtles fit on this diagram - they have no holes behind their eyes-thought this was primitive characteristics-now thought lost those holes earlier on, evolved - turtles have been found in a lot of diff places on chart - molecules tell us go closer to dinosaurs, but usually placed more on left - interesting debate going on in science about turtles right now - having no hole behind the eye makes their relationship to other species unclear - turtles are anapsids and their relationships are unclear

Answer 175

- antorbital fenestra - orbit - post-orbital foramen (2) - missing a dentary fenestra

Answer 176

- An early archosaur – early Triassic | - Small – the size of a large lizard (< 1 m)

Answer 177

-phytosaur, rauisuchan (postosuchus), aetosaur, primitive crocodilian (protosuchus) -note the potential bipedal stance of the rauisuchan -Phytosaurs had some long noses…and ate other crurotarsans Some Crurotarsans got REALLY big-like Smok wawelski -Crurotarsan diversity: most marine or semi-aquatic -most ate piscivore -early archosaur and Crurotarsan phylogeny is a mess-lots of species

Answer 178

- Late Triassic - Poland - 5-6m long - Largest land predator in Europe through the early Jurassic (and that includes dinosaurs)

Answer 179

mesotarsal

Answer 180

This includes the ancestral Euparkeria, several Crurotarsi and Marasuchus (an early Dinosauromorph)

Answer 181

-the other ornithodiran group

Answer 182

-two holes behind the orbit first then entorbital fenestra and dentary fenestra -then special ankle joint

Answer 183

- Medially open acetabulum – erect posture - Astragalus with ascending process - running - No postfrontal bone – skull - Humerus with long deltopectoral crest - arms - Femur with barrel-shaped head – erect posture - So… - Dinosaurs were probably primitively bipedal (which may have helped with running), with modified skulls and arms

Answer 184

- Possibly “silesaurid” - Mixed bag of early “dinosauromorphs” - Middle Triassic - Dinosaur characters - Possibly Bipedal - Long distal forelimbs with digitigrade stance - Digits IV and V reduced

Answer 185

- Possibly oldest dinosaur - Middle Triassic - Previously oldest are from Late Triassic - Tanzania

Answer 186

- previous earliest dino - small (1m), bipedal - late-triassic - may be early sauropod!

Answer 187

- Most were small & bipedal - Most were saurischian - South American - Mid-Late Triassic (230Ma)

Answer 188

- Another early dinosaur | - Possibly theropod

Answer 189

- Earliest Ornithischian | - The ornithischian record is sparse until the early Jurassic

Answer 190

-won out by direct competition, OR because only species that happened to make it through some extinction event, just by chance, no competition so were best-active vs passive-2 groups existed at same time for a bit or not-corrective displacement vs opportunistic

Answer 191

- a more recent study favors the "opportunistic" scenario - maybe species weren’t directly competing each other-so must’ve been 2nd possibility, other species just died out, dinos beat them out just by chance-this is historical contingency-they didn’t have any ecological advantages, didn’t diversify until after other species went extinct - It could just be “historical contingency”-Dinos beat out synapsids, as well as other archosaurs, just by chance - Some studies show that dinosaurs didn’t have an ecological advantage, and only diversified after the other groups were gone

Answer 192

- turns out there was a lot of ecological changes during the triassic-started out as hot and dry with scattered foliage but changed - maybe dinos were better at living in this environment that others-or just by chance other species wiped out by this change and dinos weren’t * BUT* Maybe dinosaurs were better at some things… (allowing them to win out) - Synapsids and (and possibly also) Crurotarsans were adapted for eating the large vertebrate herbivores of the Paleozoic - Dinosaurs may have been better adapted for eating small invertebrate herbivores as they became more common-maybe dinos good at filling new niches, new food sources - the guy who came up w this theory is EC Olsen

Answer 193

- Saw change in communities that led to rise of dinosaur ancestors, and decline in mammal ancestors - 3 community types 1. based on aquatic plants with synapsids as primary and secondary consumers 2. based on terrestrial plants eaten by synapsids 3. based on terrestrial plants eaten by invertebrates who are eaten by dinos

Answer 194

- Community evolution drives the evolution of major groups - Evolution of dinosaurs driven by the evolution of new plant eaters - the insects - which large-bodied predators were not equipped to capture.

Answer 195

community evolution

Answer 196

the evolution of new plant eaters - the insects - which large-bodied predators were not equipped to capture

Answer 197

dinos were worldwide, and had started to diversify

Answer 198

- change through time - general concept - change in gene frequencies - microevolution - descent with modification - macroevolution

Answer 199

-the mechanism for evolution -4 assumptions: 1. individuals within a population (no two individuals are exactly the same) 2. More individuals are produced that can survive 3. the variation influences the survival and reproduction of individuals (some will do better than others-i. e. natural selection), AND IF 4. The variation in features is heritable, there will be… EVOLUTION -these are all assumptions that make sense and can be observed -Darwin came up with them-before him had no good mechanism for evolution-after him we’ve found more mechanisms for evolution but we’re gonna focus on natural selection

Answer 200

populations, not individuals

Answer 201

genetic | -it causes changes in the gene pool

Answer 202

microevolution writ large

Answer 203

random, selective

Answer 204

adaptations

Answer 205

evolution will happen

Answer 206

- the relative ability of an individual to survive, reproduce and propagate genes - selection acts on the fitness of individuals to cause changes (evolution) in the average fitness of a population - individuals have fitness - populations evolve - selection can be “natural” or “sexual”-both cause changes in fitness

Answer 207

Ecology and evolution are intimately related because and organism’s ecological situation directs its evolution, and the organism’s response to its ecological situation may be evolutionary

Answer 208

- Individuals compete for mates and this affects their ability to pass on their genes to the next generation. - So characters not necessarily good in the environment can be selected if they help get mates - Also by Darwin!

Answer 209

1) Direct observation 2) Comparative anatomy 3) Embryology/development 4) Biogeography 5) Fossil Record (Paleontology) 6) Classification 7) Comparative Genomics

Answer 210

-Industrial Melanism-Peppered Moth -Peppered Moth (Biston betularia)-before industrial revolution, more white moths-then industrial revolution happened, soot turned trees black and fumes killed light lichen-so then more black lichen -In 1950, Bernard Kettlewell tested the pollution hypothesis and found strong support for the impact of moth color on susceptibility to bird predation. -US and England passed Clean Air acts-decline of black moth All 4 of Darwin’s premises are met: 1) the moths vary in their color pattern 2) They are subject to predation 3) The different color patterns vary in their probability of survival, and 4) this variation is heritable

Answer 211

the deliberate elimination or cultivation of particular individuals with desirable traits by humans.

Answer 212

trade-offs

Answer 213

- dogs-huge diversity in 200 years - corn-artificial selection for oil content in corn over 75 generations - All 4 of Darwin's premises are met: 1) Individuals vary in some character (one that is desirable to humans) 2) more are produced than are ALLOWED to survive / reproduce 3) they vary in a character that affects survivorship (which is used as a basis for selection by humans) 4) this variation is heritable.

Answer 214

- Evolution of acquired characteristics - evolution happens to individuals - giraffes-stretch neck to get to food on tree-eventually gets longer, then pass this on to children - wrong cuz cant grow neck by stretching it-and even if could, would not pass on the long neck to offspring, just genes for the original size the neck was

Answer 215

= the study of the similarities and differences in morphology (animal and plant form) -homology more important than analogy

Answer 216

- Homology-derived from a common ancestor - not necessarily similar in form - Analogy-similar in form, but not derived from a common ancestor - due to convergence - body plan of diff aquatic species similar - But there are differences that reveal the differing ancestry-they evolved that form independently-there are some underlying differences that reveal that-sharks and fish swim side to side-dolphin and porpoise tale moves up and down

Answer 217

- body plan of diff aquatic species similar - But there are differences that reveal the differing ancestry-they evolved that form independently-there are some underlying differences that reveal that-sharks and fish swim side to side-dolphin and porpoise tale moves up and down

Answer 218

- e.g. our appendix, wisdom teeth-whale hindlimb-galapagos wings - No apparent function - Usually reduced in size relative to condition in closely related species - Fully functional in ancestors -so ancestors had it and used it but now don’t - Persist in reduced form if they are not harmful - These only make sense in light of evolution! - will we eventually lose these things? no-think of natural selection-people don’t die from an appendix of wisdom teeth-need to have some kind of selection-not more likely to survive if don’t have appendix or wisdom teeth-but not more likely to survive with it either-no selection to maintain it, or against it so will probably linger for a while but continue to not be helpful/used

Answer 219

1. Strongly supports idea of descent with modification. 2. The development of homologous structures within embryos follow a similar sequence. 3. Structures may appear early in embryos and then disappear, such as tails and gills in humans. These transient structures are best understood as a result of evolution. - we have gills at first as embryos-lost over time-but shows we had ancestors that had gills - we look similar to a lot of others as embryos-like pigs, oxen, rabbits, shows we had common ancestor

Answer 220

- guy who came up with these embryo pics/pointed out their similarity - "Ontogeny is the brief and rapid recapitulation of phylogeny, dependent on the physiological functions of heredity (reproduction) and adaptation (nutrition.).” Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) - basically saying if you look at the development of an embryo, you see evolutionary history-kind of right-it’s not like when we develop we first go through fish phase then reptile phase, etc., but still kinda right-explains cell structure that we see in embryos-but not strictly correct

Answer 221

- Ontogeny = development (of an individual) - Recapitulate = repeat in concise form, to summarize - Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species. - so: an individual's development repeats/summarized the evolutionary history of a species

Answer 222

1) A strict interpretation is clearly wrong | 2) It suggests that evolution can only occur by adding on to ontogenies – and not by shortening them.

Answer 223

- the study of the geographical distributions of animals and plants. - Before Darwin, it was accepted that the geographical distributions of animals and plants were not random but the reason was not clear.

Answer 224

evolution can explain how they adapted to fill same niches-so biogeography helps prove evolution

Answer 225

Similarity in form between distantly related species as a result of adaptation to similar environments

Answer 226

- When a taxon invades a new area (meaning there are a lot of unfilled niches) and diverges (evolve) to fill unfilled niches - what happened on the Galapagos (isolated islands in PAcific Ocean) with Darwin was that originally no birds on island, birds came there in storm-all these niches to be filled-seed eating, cactus eating, etc-so evolved into diff niches, got this huge diversity all from common ancestor

Answer 227

- land bridge didn’t form until about 5 MYA - when it did form, dogs got into south america, where there were lots of unfilled niches-they filled a bunch of different niches-now have all these different canids - nice example of adaptive radiation

Answer 228

- Most fossils of extinct organisms can be classified into groups of existing organisms (they share similarities due to descent with modification) - Observed differences between living and extinct forms become greater as you go back in time - Floral fauna living during any one period of earth’s history tend to be intermediate in form between those that come before and those that come after - the transition from fins to limbs is well documented - as is the one form limbs to fins

Answer 229

- transitional forms (“missing links”) are found in the fossil record-got better and better at being in water? - nice line of evidence for evolution

Answer 230

- Late Jurassic-Solnhofen Limestone, Germany-30-50cm long-a transitional form between dinos and birds! - evolution of dinos to birds-great transitional fossils for-fossils that have some bird like characteristics and some dino characteristics-this is what we would expect if evolution is true-so supports evolution

Answer 231

- Lineages tend to evolve larger average body sizes over time - good fossil record of this growth in size - Cope thought all dinos got bigger-not true for all species-but true for a lot - part of the reason why most dinos get bigger over time is the red queen hypothesis

Answer 232

- Predator and prey evolve in tandem just to keep up with each other - neither side ever wins, just always trying to

Answer 233

- Carl Linnaeus-didn’t believe in evolution, fairly religious, but believed species should be classified by similarities and shared characteristics - Prior to Darwin, people realized that organisms could be arranged into a hierarchy of forms and explained this as evidence of the Creator's wisdom. - Taxonomic hierarchy (organisms are united into groups based on shared characteristics) - Darwin said we can explain these characteristics based on shared ancestry-these species look similar because they had a common ancestor - the classification we have reflects the underlying ancestry - evolution gives us an explanation for why we can classify things-gives us the reason why this works

Answer 234

organisms are united into groups based on shared characteristics. Larger groups, such as "Orders" encompass several smaller groups, such as "Families", which in turn contain many "genera", which in turn include one or more species

Answer 235

A species is a group of organisms that can potentially mate and have viable, fertile offspring.

Answer 236

based on morphological differences observed in living groups and applied to fossil groups

Answer 237

1. The simple language for the genetic code is identical in all organisms. 2. Closely related organisms share more genes-common ancestor-so proves evolution 3. Genes that control the development of body parts, such as limbs, are similar among all animals that have those body parts. - same gene that helps build fly and humans

Answer 238

- The Ultimate Shared Primitive Character - DeoxyriboNucleic Acid - ALL living things have it - In all living things it has the same structure and uses the same code… - made up of nucleotides, sugar-phosphate backbone, and hydrogen bonds-adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine,

Answer 239

a mutation that causes tissues to alter their normal differentiation pattern, producing integrated structures but in unusual locations. For example, a homeotic mutation in the fruit fly, Drosphila, causes legs to develop where antennae normally form.

Answer 240

- Set up basic axes of body orientation-anterior/posterior, dorsal/ventral, medial/lateral - Highly conserved - Colinear on genome

Answer 241

- flies, mice, chickens… etc. - The genes are homologous - There have been some duplication events, so we have four sets of the same genes in a fly

Answer 242

-Darwin surmised that speciation was basically a fission process - one lineage branches making another one -Darwin also deduced that ALL living things are derived from one ultimate common ancestor From this could be concluded two things. First… -That the history of life on earth would look like a tree, with the ultimate common ancestor as a the root, and all living things as end points of branches

Answer 243

-a cladogram-Darwin knew that if you traced these lines back that they’d all meet back at one point: The Ultimate Common Ancestor -This tree-like structure lends itself to an obvious method of classification, or TAXONOMY -Of course you don’t need evolution to make a taxonomy. Linneaus did it 150 years before Darwin, by just using similarity of organisms -Nowadays we have a very specific method for building the tree of life, based on the concept of homology, called…. phylogenetic taxonomy

Answer 244

Things that are more closely related will be closer on the tree and will look more similar than those that are less closely related and farther apart on the tree

Answer 245

- Uses homologies to generate a tree that shows rela-ons of organisms - The trees are called CLADOGRAMS - Used to classify TAXA (sing. TAXON), which are groups of organisms, usually species

Answer 246

- group similar things together using characters-using homologous traits - we use HOMOLOGIES, specifically SHARED DERIVED TRAITS, to classify organisms in our TAXONOMIES, and build our CLADOGRAMS - start with taxa we want to classify and put into a cladogram - First we need a character that unifies all of them, except one - after choosing 1, now we can choose other shared derived characters to start dividing up the rest - keep doing this-dividing the remaining taxa-until all have own branch - there are obviously other ways we could make a cladogram of given taxa-can use diff characters to define our clades - To choose between conflicting cladograms we use the principle of PARSIMONY, i.e. the simplest solution is the best - saying usually evolution works in the simplest way possible-this isn’t always true but at least using this “simplest” theory will give cladograms-this gives us a hypothesis to test - They give us a model for how evolution works, which we can then test by looking at other taxa-maybe we find species with shared characteristics that doesn’t work with our current cladogram, then restructure to make simplest possible cladogram including this new species

Answer 247

- features that are similar but are not inherited from common ancestor - superficially similar - similar because they do the same job - ex: analagous femur shape

Answer 248

features that are similar b/c inherited from common ancestor

Answer 249

- it depends on how you’re talking about them | - ex: some wings are homologous as forelimbs, but analogous as wings

Answer 250

- ONLY SHOW relative RELATIONSHIPS, i.e. who is related to who - There is no sense of time implied; fossil groups are right at the top with living things-only shows relationships-only sense of time you get is order-succession-some relative time but no absolute time - There are no lineages shown - They can be used to show how traits have been acquired by different groups, i.e. their evolutionary history - show how traits have been inherited from others

Answer 251

any trait that two taxa share that was present in their last common ancestor

Answer 252

traits that are only shared between those taxa derived from their last common ancestor, i.e. the CLADE derived from that Last Common Ancestor

Answer 253

traits that all taxa in a clade share, but so do taxa outside the clade

Answer 254

you have to let computers do the work for you-things get really complex really fast-the characters get complex too-use DNA sequences now-hundreds or thousands of base pairs long

Answer 255

-The terms “primitive” and “derived” are only relative-depends on which group you’re talking about-looking at this cladogram from earlier, as far as amphibians and monkeys, 5 digits is a derived characteristic, but to gorillas, it’s a primitive characteristics -the same characters can be derived or primitive, depending on the taxon-Nursing young in mammals is derived- Nursing young in humans is primitive

Answer 256

shares unique homologous characters

Answer 257

the diff species looking at in a cladogram

Answer 258

lines in cladograms branching off from main line

Answer 259

common ancestor of that species

Answer 260

- who shares the more recent common ancestor - to find out-go from the 2 taxa, keep going down the cladogram until reach point where they cross - whichever takes the smaller number of lines to get the species trying to figure out if more/less related to

Answer 261

taxa that share a common ancestor

Answer 262

“nestedness”/relationships - can swivel branches (around a point) - even if remove some taxa, still shows the same relationships with the remaining taxa

Answer 263

- Homologous: similar b/c inherited from common ancestor-ex: feathers in eagles and ducks - Analogous: (convergent) similar but NOT inherited from common ancestor-ex: wings in birds and bats

Answer 264

Primitive character: present in the evolutionary lineage leading up to the group in question Derived character: uniquely present within the group in question BOTH are homologous, the difference is the unique presence in a clade.

Answer 265

primitive (cuz eyes not unique to cats)

Answer 266

derived-in the name-they’ve got a vertebrate-that’s the derived character that defines that group

Answer 267

primitive-goes back to amniotes

Answer 268

derived-mammary glands is a character that unites mammals

Answer 269

primitive-many animals do this-doesn’t unite humans vs anything else

Answer 270

- Yes. Sometimes characters are lost. As long as snakes’ ancestors had limbs (they did), snakes are tetrapods. - The loss of a character can be a derived character for a clade

Answer 271

- convergent - or homologous: primitive or derived ("evolutionary novelty”) - only evolutionary novelties used to determine relationships!!

Answer 272

- a group defined by the presence of unique/derived (homologous) characters - Ancestor and ALL descendants - Each other’s closest relatives

Answer 273

...don’t share unique homologous structures (if a paraphyletic group)

Answer 274

- a group defined by the absence of some derived character - Ancestor BUT NOT ALL of its descendants - Some in group are more closely related to taxa outside of group

Answer 275

monophyletic groups

Answer 276

- Higher clades-examples: - Animalia - Dinosauria - Vertebrata

Answer 277

- genus then specific name makes up the species name | - can abbreviate to first letter of genus then full specific name-ex: Tyrannosaurus rex becomes T. rex

Answer 278

``` Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primate Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: Homo Sapiens (King Philip came over from Germany singing) ```

Answer 279

-gets really complicated here-run out of names-so instead with cladistics just call them all clades-only still use genus and species

Answer 280

-No. Humans don’t necessarily need to be at the top. -It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another. We consider those, when the intellectual faculties (cerebral structure) most developed, as highest. A bee doubtless would when the instincts were. —Charles Darwin saying that we value intelligence the most so put ourselves at the top, but if we valued making perfect hexagons then bees would be at the top-subjective

Answer 281

no, we are not evolved from chimpanzees-we share a common ancestor with chimpanzees that was neither chimp nor human, even if looked more like a chimp

Answer 282

- cuz it’s usually used in a paraphyletic sense-doesn’t include common ancestor of all these-birds would have to be in the group reptiles - same with dinosaurs-should include birds-so when we talk about dinos we mean the paraphyletic group excluding birds?

Answer 283

...from art to science | -and made it clear that birds are derived from small, carnivorous dinos

Answer 284

- make long brackets that show relationships and common ancestors and show all species-helpful - Phylogenetic bracketing is a method of inference used in biological sciences. It is to infer the likelihood of unknown traits in organisms based on their position in a phylogenetic tree. One of the main applications of phylogenetic bracketing is on extinct animals, known only from fossils. The method is often used for understanding traits that do not fossilize well-By considering the closest and second closest well known (usually extant) organisms, traits can be asserted with a fair degree of certainty - the extant phylogenetic bracket approach allows researchers to infer traits in extinct animals with varying levels of confidence-use is trying to figure something out about animals in the past-reconstruct old species - but don’t even know if dinos saw in color-but can figure it out with phylogenics-crocodiles evolved before dinos and had color vision, birds evolved after and had it-so can assume dinos had color vision too - also can figure out that dinos had fleshy nostrils by looking at birds, crocodiles, and lizards

Answer 285

primary producers at bottom-sunlight goes into primary producers-then primary consumers above that, and secondary consumers at the top-sunlight goes into primary producers-all of them eventually die and get broken down by decomposers

Answer 286

- Plants: Energy (sunlight) + CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 (glucose sugar) - Animals: C6H12O6 (glucose sugar) Energy (as ATP) + CO2 + H2O

Answer 287

- similar to modern food webs-same positions and paths, trophic pyramid, but different species - every time you move up the food web, only 10% efficient-only get 10% of the energy available/possible-all of the steps along the way/up the pyramid are 10% efficient - where does the rest of the energy go? gets released into environment? where does it originally come from? the sun - energy gets lost to heat mostly - lots of inefficiencies to this - this is why in normal food webs, usually 10x more herbivores than carnivores - this seems to have been the case for Mesozoic ecosystems

Answer 288

-10x more carnivores than herbivores-weird-has interesting implications-probably a carnivore trap-1 herbivore got stuck, 10 carnivores came over to eat it because thought easy catch, then got trapped

Answer 289

- maybe something interesting going on here as well | - probably there was some sort of carnivore trap

Answer 290

-We assume that they have a similar structure to modern ecosystems -This means they were interconnected -This means they were inefficient -Consequently, there should be far more herbivores than carnivores in the fossil record Is this a good assumption to make…?

Answer 291

-part of Dino Renaissance-talked about Dino mamas-child care and behavior of dinos, similar to modern birds

Answer 292

-part of Dino Renaissance-popularized idea of dino endothermy-dino warm-bloodedness

Answer 293

- earliest of the geologic ages - covers the vast bulk of the Earth's history - starts with the planet's creation about 4.5 billion years ago and ending with the emergence of complex, multicellular life-forms - 4600 - 542 million years ago

Answer 294

- the current geologic eon in the geologic timescale, and the one during which abundant animal life has existed - covers roughly 542 million years - goes back to the period when diverse hard-shelled animals first appeared - constitutes the age of multicellular animal life on Earth - micro- and multicellular organisms left a detailed fossil record, and built up complex and diverse ecosystems, and life has evolved through countless transformations and millions upon millions of species - 542 mya-present

Answer 295

- a major interval of geologic time that began 542 million years ago with the Cambrian explosion, an extraordinary diversification of marine animals, and ended 251 million years ago with the end-Permian extinction, the greatest extinction event in Earth history - 542-251 mya - a time of dramatic geological, climatic, and evolutionary change - life began in the ocean but eventually transitioned onto land

Answer 296

- an interval of geological time from about 252 to 66 million years ago. It is also called the age of reptiles, a phrase introduced by the 19th century paleontologist Gideon Mantell who viewed it as dominated by reptiles - divided into three major periods: the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous - 252-66mya

Answer 297

- 66mya-present - the current and most recent of the three Phanerozoic geological eras - the age of mammals-the extinction of many groups allowed mammals to greatly diversify - the Earth had begun a drying and cooling trend - the continents also began looking roughly familiar at this time and moved into their current positions

Answer 298

- the first period of the Mesozoic Era - started 252 million years ago, at the close of the Permian Period, and ended 201 million years ago, when it was succeeded by the Jurassic Period. - 252-201mya - a time of transition - Pangaea existed, altering global climate and ocean circulation - follows the largest extinction event in the history of life, and so is a time when the survivors of that event spread and recolonized. - organisms of the Triassic can be considered to belong to one of three groups: holdovers from the P/T extinction, new groups which flourished briefly, and new groups which went on to dominate the Mesozoic world (like dinos)

Answer 299

- 200-146mya - the start of the period is marked by the major Triassic–Jurassic extinction event - huge dinosaurs, birds, and rodents - Crumbling landmasses and inland seas - Sea monsters, sharks, and blood-red plankton - Forests of ferns, cycads, and conifers. Warm, moist, tropical breezes. - At the start of the period, the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea continued and accelerated

Answer 300

- 146mya-66mya - the last and longest segment of the Mesozoic Era - lasted from the minor extinction event that closed the Jurassic Period about 145.5 million years ago to the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction event dated at 65.5 million years ago - usually noted for being the last portion of the "Age of Dinosaurs", but that does not mean that new kinds of dinosaurs did not appear then - many insect groups, modern mammal and bird groups, and the first flowering plants - breakup of the world-continent Pangea continued-led to increased regional differences in floras and faunas between the northern and southern continents. - The end of the Cretaceous brought the end of many previously successful and diverse groups of organisms, such as non-avian dinosaurs and ammonites-this laid open the stage for those groups which had previously taken secondary roles to come to the forefront-The Cretaceous was thus the time in which life as it now exists on Earth came together.

Answer 301

the mother of all supercontinents, formed from the union of all present-day continents

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a northern supercontinent

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a southern supercontinent comprising present-day Australia, Africa, South America, and Antartica

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- layered mounds, columns, and sheet-like sedimentary rocks - layered bio-chemical accretionary structures formed in shallow water by the trapping, binding and cementation of sedimentary grains by biofilms of microorganisms, especially cyanobacteria - provide ancient records of life on Earth by fossil remains which might date from more than 3.5 billion years ago

Answer 305

- an extinct animal known from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia - swam above the seafloor using its body and an expanded tail fin - a representative member of the chordate group from which we undoubtedly arose - debate on whether vertebrate or not

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- an organism bearing amniotic eggs - clade of tetrapod vertebrates comprising the reptiles, birds and mammals which lay their eggs on land or retain the fertilized egg within the mother.

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- the large clade of amniotes that includes the common ancestor of lepidosauromorphs and archosaurs, and all its decendents - extremely diverse, and includes all crocodiles, lizards, snakes, tuatara, birds and non-avian dinosaurs - Although some diapsids have lost either one hole (lizards), or both holes (snakes), or have a heavily restructured skull (modern birds), they are still classified as diapsids based on their ancestry

Answer 308

- the large clade of amniotes, including mammals, diagnosed by a single temporal opening - a group of animals that includes mammals and every animal more closely related to mammals than to other living amniotes - mammals or mammal like reptiles

Answer 309

- a clade within archosauromorpha | - the living ancestors include birds and crocidiles

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- are reptiles with overlapping scales - a monophyletic group and therefore contains all descendents of a common ancestor - a division of reptiles, including the serpents and lizards

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- the common ancestor of pterosaurs and dinosaurs, and all its descendents - the group of Archosaur reptiles that became the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, lizards, snakes, crocodiles, alligators, and birds - lived from the late Permian to the early Triassic, and by the middle Triassic they had evolved into the dinosaurs and pterosaurs.

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b. the period following Ostrom's description of Deinonychus Correct

Answer 313

a. Congratulations - you have just successfully used the scientific method to solve a problem in your everyday life.

Answer 314

e. Cretaceous

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b. the testability of the claim

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a. There has never been a single recording of a Tooth Fairy, despite millions of children trying to see her.

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c. Mesozoic

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d. Paleozoic

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a. Synapsid reptiles.

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a. direct evidence

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c. it has long been separated from other continents due to plate tectonics

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c. ontogeny

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b. phylogeny

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c. homologous

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c. homologous

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e. amniotes

Answer 327

d. archosaurs

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d. convergent

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c. antorbital fenestrae

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d. oceanic crust tends to subduct under continental crust

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b. Triassic

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c. ocean-continent convergent margins

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c. East African Rift

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b. The big island is now over the hot spot, and Kauai has moved off the hot spot.

Answer 335

d. a convergent subduction margin

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d. 4.5 billion years

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a. Cretaceous

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c. sedimentation on a passive margin

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b. Lots of small and soft organisms that didn't leave much of a fossil record

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b. it's possibly the first vertebrate in the fossil record.

Answer 341

d. Osteicthyes

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c. seed plants

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a. It was possible to make some of the compounds for life from elements that would have been around earth in the Earth's history.

Answer 344

b. Ediacaran fossils lack hard parts.

Answer 345

b. lateral