Midterm Flashcards
What is Personality?
The distinct patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings that characterize a person’s adjustment to the demands of life.
Personality is characterized by a..
dynamic struggle between elements of the personality.
Freud believed that the human mind was like an:
Iceberg
What are the three psychic structures that Freud hypothesized that made up personalities?
Id, Ego, and Superego
The Id is present at birth and represents our…
instinctual drives such as hunger, sex ,and aggression.
The ego begins to develop during ____. Hence, the ego is guided by the “Reality Principle.”
the first year of life and balances the id’s urges with reality.
When the ego is threatened by unconscious impulses, it will employ ___ to protect the conscious self.
defense mechanisms
The superego is…
the embodiment of societal rules, ethics, and morals.
List the psychosocial stages in the correct order.
- Oral Stage
- Anal Stage
- Phallic Stage
- Latency Stage
- Genital Stage
Unlike Freud, Jung viewed the sexual instinct as just…
one of many important instincts.
Alfred Adler believe that people are motivated by an..
inferiority complex.
Unlike Freud, Karen Horney argues that little girls do not suffer ____. She believed that____ were more influential in childhood development than sexual impulses.
penis envy
&
interpersonal relationships
List Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development in order:
- Trust vs. Mistrust
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
- Initiative vs. Guilt
- Industry vs. Inferiority
- Ego Identity vs. Role Diffusion
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Integrity vs. Despair
Learning theories focus upon our ability to ___ to the environments in which we find ourselves.
learn and adapt
Psychology is the study of…
behavior and mental processes.
Adjustment (coping) is…
behavior that permits us to meet the demands of the environment.
It appears that genetic factors are involved in ____ human traits and behavior.
nearly all
However, genetic factors cause ____… not specific patterns. Genetic factors interact with other factors such as learning experiences and personal choice to determine behaviors disorders and traits.
predispositions
Clinical Approach: focuses primarily on…
ways in which psychology can help people overcome personal problems and cope with stress.
Healthy Personality Approach:focuses primarily on…
healthful patterns of personal growth and development, including social and vocational development.
Evidence to date points to several factors relating to happiness: (list at least two)
- Heredity
- Having Friends
- Religious Faith
Two types of diversity mentioned in your text are ____ and ____.
Ethnicity
&
Gender
Why Study Diversity? (List at least two reasons)
- To help us better understand and fully appreciate the true extent of human behavior and mental processes.
- To comprehend the dramatically changing ethnic composition of our society.
Critical Thinking is…
an approach to thinking characterized by skepticism and thoughtful analysis of statements and arguments.
Scientific Method:
A method for obtaining scientific evidence in which a hypothesis is formed and tested.
Case-Study Method:
A method of research based on a carefully drawn biography obtained through interviews, questionnaires, or psychological tests.
The Survey Method: Surveys…
are a means of gathering information by which large numbers of individuals are interviewed or asked to complete questionnaires in order to learn about their attitudes or behaviors.
The Survey Method: Sample:
Part of a population selected for research
The Survey Method: Generalize:
To apply observations based on a sample to a population
The Survey Method: Population:
A complete group of organisms or events.
The Survey Method: Random Sample:
A sample drawn such that every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected.
Naturalistic-observation Method: A scientific method…
in which organisms are observed in their natural environments.
Correlational Method: A scientific method…
that studies the relationships between variables.
Correlation Coefficient: A number between ____ that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables.
+1.00 to -1.00
While correlational studies show relationships, ____ cannot be inferred from that relationship.
Causation
The Experimental Method: A scientific method that seeks to confirm or discover _____ relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables.
Cause-and-effect
Independent Variable:
A condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed.
Dependent Variable:
A measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable.
Control Group: _________, while other conditions are held constant. Therefore, one may conclude that group differences following treatment will result from the treatment.
A group of subjects whose members don’t receive the treatment.
Placebo:
A bogus treatment that has the appearance of being genuine.
Double-blind studies:
Experiments in which ______ know who has been given the active treatment or drug and who has not.
Neither the subjects nor the researchers
Two prominent theories are ____ and _____ Theory.
Behaviorism
&
Social-Cognitive
A school of psychology that explains and predicts behavior in terms of the…
environmental stimuli acting upon an organism and the organism’s subsequent responses.
Classical Conditioning is a simple form of learning in which…
one stimulus comes to bring forth the response usually brought forth by a second stimulus as a result of being paired repeatedly with the second stimulus.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
A stimulus that elicits a response from an organism without learning.
Unconditioned Response (UCR):
An unlearned response. A response to an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response because it has been paired repeatedly with a stimulus that already brought forth that response.
Conditioned Response (CR):
A response to a conditioned stimulus.
Operant conditioning is a simple form of learning in which the _____ of behaviors is increased (by means of reinforcement) or decreased (by means of punishment).
Frequency
Positive Reinforcer: A reinforcer that ____ the frequency of behavior when it is _____ (an example would be to reward behavior by giving something pleasant such as food or money).
Increases
&
Presented
Negative Reinforcer: A reinforcer that ___ the frequency of behavior when it is ____ (an example would be to reward behavior by taking away an unpleasant task such as doing the dishes).
Increases
&
Removed
Punishment is an unpleasant stimulus that ____ behavior.
Suppresses
Social-Cognitive Theory: A cognitively oriented theory in which ____, _____, and _____ play major roles in determining behavior.
Observational learning, values, and expectations.
Reciprocal Determinism: Albert Bandura’s term for the social-cognitive view that people _____ their environment just as their environment influences them.
Influence
Observational Learning: Unlike behaviorism, social-cognitive theory holds that we can learn simply by _____.
Observation.
Person Variables: _____ that influence behavior. (Examples include: competencies, emotions, self-regulatory systems and plans).
Factors within the person…
Humanism is the view that people are capable of…
free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior.
Self-Actualization:
An _____ to strive to realize one’s potential. The goal to “be all you can be”.
innate tendency
____ believed that we progress toward higher psychological needs once our basic needs are met. He envisioned this as a “____”.
Maslow
&
“Hierarchy of Needs”
List Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
- Physiological
- Safety
- Love and Belongingness
- Esteem
- Self-Asctualization
Rogers believed that each of us is unique and views the world from a unique frame of reference. He felt that if we are given _____, we would develop our unique abilities and talents.
unconditional positive regard
Unconditional Positive Regard:
Acceptance of others as ______.
Consistent expression of esteem for the value of another person.
having intrinsic merit regardless of their behavior of the moment
Trait Theories: A school of psychology that attempts to understand personality by classifying, measuring, and interrelating _____ of personality known as traits.
relatively stable aspects
A trait is a ____. In other words, an individual will display this trait in most situations.
relatively stable aspect of personality that is inferred from behavior and assumed to give rise to consistent behavior
Genes influence personality by…
creating predispositions
Sociocultural Theories:
The view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in…
personality, behavior, and adjustment
Individualist: A person who defines herself or himself in terms of ____ and gives priority to her or his own goals.
personal traits
Collectivist: A person who defines herself or himself in terms of _____ and groups and gives priority to group goals.
relationships to other people
The two most common forms of assessment are ____ and ____ types of tests.
projective & objective
Objective tests present respondents with a ____ in the form of a questionnaire.
standard group of test items
Projective personality tests are derived from the belief (in psychodynamic theory) that people tend _____ to unstructured of vague stimuli.
to impost their unconscious needs, impulses, or motives onto their responses
Stress: An event that exerts _______. The demand made on an organism to adjust.
physical or psychological force or pressure on a person
Daily Hassles: Lazarus’ term for ____ sources of annoyance or aggravation that have a negative impact on health.
routine
Life changes differ from daily hassles in that life changes can ____, whereas hassles are negative. Also, while hassles occur on a regular basis, life changes occur at irregular intervals.
be both positive and negative
Acculturative Stress: The feelings of tension and anxiety that accompany efforts to adapt to or adopt the orientation and values of the _____ culture.
dominant
Pain and Discomfort ____ performance and coping ability.
impair
In response to pain, the brain triggers the release of _____.
endorphins
Endorphin: A….
neurotransmitter that is composed of chains of amino acids and is functionally similar to morphine.
List 3 ways of coping with pain.
- Distraction
- Hypnosis
- Acupuncture
Tolerance for frustration:
Ability to ____, to maintain self-control when a motive is thwarted.
delay gratification
Conflict: A condition characterized by _____ motives, in which gratification of one motive prevents gratification of another.
opposing
List 4 types of conflict.
- Approach-approach
- Avoidance-avoidance
- Approach-avoidance
- Multiple Approach-avoidance
The ABC approach by ____.
Albert Ellis
Ellis believes that our response to events (and our subsequent levels of stress) are due to our _____ about these events.
beliefs
Irrational Beliefs can lead to higher levels of _____.
stress
Type A behavior pattern:
A pattern of stress-producing behavior, characterized by….(List three):
- aggressiveness
- perfectionism
- unwillingness to relinquish control
_____ Stressors:
- natural disasters
- terrorism
- noise
- temperature
- air pollution
- crowding
Environmental
Self-Efficacy:
Beliefs to the effect that…
one can perform a task successfully or manage a stressor.
The ability to predict a stressor ____ its impact. Predictability allows us to brace for the inevitable and in many cases, plan ways of coping with it.
moderates
Humans are social beings…and social support seems to act as a _____ for stress.
buffer
Managing Stress:
Defensive: withdrawal, denial, procrastination, substance abuse, ____.
aggression
Managing Stress:
Active: Engagement of problem, active problem solving, ____.
positive action
List 6 examples of active coping.
- workout
- express your feelings
- try humor
- know what to expect
- change irrational beliefs
- develop time management techniques
Health Psychology:
The field of psychology that studies the relationships between…
psychological factors and the prevention and treatment of physical health problems.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): \_\_\_\_\_ term for a hypothesized three-stage response to stress. -Stage 1: Alarm Reaction -Stage 2: \_\_\_\_\_ -Stage 3: Exhaustion
Selye’s
&
Resistance
Sympathetic Division: The division of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) that is most ____ during activities and emotional responses -such as anxiety and fear- that spend the body’s reserves of energy.
active
The second stage of the GAS characterized by ____ sympathetic nervous system activity in an effort to restore lost energy and repair damage. Also called the ____ stage.
prolonged
&
Adaptation
The exhaustion stage is characterized by…
weakened resistance and possible deteriortation
Stress and Emotions:
While positive emotions such as love and desire fill our days with purpose, negative emotions can fill us with dread and make each day a chore to navigate. Stress can lead…
to anxiety, anger, and depression.
Under stress, people may have difficulty ____ on the task at hand.
thinking clearly or remaining focused
High levels of bodily arousal that characterize the alarm reaction stage can ____ memory functioning and problem solving ability (ex: test anxiety).
impair
Stress can ___ the immune system, and consequently make us more vulnerable to disease.
weaken
Headaches are among the ____ stress-related physical ailments.
most common
The underlying causal mechanisms of migraines are not well understood but appear to be related to ______.
changes in blood flow to the brain and subsequent imbalances of serotonin.
Coronary heart disease is the ___ cause of death in the U.S. Some of the common risk factors:
Leading & -family history -physiological conditions -pattern of consumption -type A behavior -hostility and anger -job strain -physical inactivity
Ways to reduce the risk of CHD:
- exercising
- reducing hypertension
- modifying type A behavior
- stop smoking
- controlling weight
Cancer is a disease characterized by the development of ____ cells that may take root anywhere in the body.
abnormal or mutant
Don’t be swayed by a doctor who says your problems are “_____”.
“all in your head”
Preventing Mismanaged Care:
Insist on your right to see a ______.
Specialist
Nutrition:
The process _______. Foods provide us with the nutrients we need for energy and building our bodies (muscle, bone, an other tissues.)
by which plants and animals consume and utilize food
Proteins:
Organic molecules that comprise the _____. Excess protein is converted to fat.
basic building blocks of body tissues
Simply put, obesity is a major…..
health risk
Biological factors such as heredity, adipose tissue, and body metabolism ______ to obesity.
can all contribute
Today, it is widely accepted that heredity plays a ____ role in obesity.
central
The act of dieting can make it hard to lose additional weight. Our bodies are designed to store fat, so when we lose weight, our ____ slow down.
metabolic rates
___ can impede dieting and lead to binge eating.
Depression and anxiety
Young woman in the U.S. come of age in a culture _____, especially thinness in women.
obsessed with thinness
Eating disorders often develop during…
adolescence and early adulthood
Women with anorexia may lose ____ or more of their body weight in one year.
25%
Similar to those with anorexia, bulimics tend to hold ____ views about body shape and weight.
perfectionistic
Unlike those with anorexia, bulimics tend to maintain a ____ body weight.
relatively normal
Aerobic Exercise:
Exercise that requires…
sustained increase in oxygen consumption, such as jogging, swimming, or riding a bicycle.
Anaerobic Exercise:
Exercise..
that does not require sustained increase in oxygen consumption, such as weightlifting.
Fitness: The ability to perform physically demanding tasks without undue fatigue. ___________.
Cardiovascular fitness refers to the ability of the heart and lungs to function under stress.
Exercise has been demonstrated to help….
alleviate depression, a psychological disorder characterized by inactivity, dampened mood, and feelings of helplessness.
Exercise has also been shown to _____ anxiety and hostility and to _____ self-esteem.
decrease
&
boost
Restoration: Sleep serves a restorative function by helping to ____ a tired body. It may also allow the brain to ____ of daily experiences.
rejuvenate
&
consolidate memories
Survival: Sleep also may serve a survival function by keeping us…
from roaming in the night when our senses aren’t as sharp as those of a potential predator.
Insomnia:
A disorder characterized by persistent ____ or _____.
difficulty falling asleep OR remaining alseep
About one in ____ adult Americans suffer from persistent or chronic insomnia.
ten
Substance Abuse: continued use of a substance…
despite knowledge that it is dangerous or that it is linked to social, occupational, psychological, or physical problems.
Substance Dependence:
Dependence is shown by signs such _____, marked tolerance, and _____.
as persistent use despite efforts to cut down
&
withdrawal symptoms
Substance abuse and dependence usually begin with ____ use in ____.
experimental use
&
adolescence
Drug-use patterns established during adolescence foreshadow..
future substance abuse problems.
Psychological Factor In Substance Abuse and Dependence:
1. _____ about the effects of a substance are powerful predictors of its use. 2. Parents might be ____ to their children and 3. usage of a drug may be _____.
expectations & modeling drug-usage & reinforced by peers
Biological Factors in Substance Abuse and Dependence:
Certain people may have a _____ toward developing substance dependence problems.
Genetic Predispostion
Alcoholism: A term used to describe alcohol dependence, which is characterized by ____ and development of a physiological dependence on the drug.
impaired control over the use of alcohol
Depressant: A drug that ______ the rate of activity of the central nervous system. Common depressants include:
- ______
- Opiods
- _____
decreases
&
-alcohol
-sedatives
Alcohol ____ people, deadens minor pain, _____cognitive functioning, slurs speech and reduces motor coordination.
relaxes
&
impairs
Treating Alcoholism: The most widely used program is ____ which utilized a ___ program.
Alcoholics Anonymous
&
12-step
However, Cognitive-behavioral therapy and motivational enhancement therapy have been shown to be ____ as effective as Alcoholics Anonymous.
equally
Opiods are a group of _____ derived from the opium poppy, that are used to relieve pain but then can also provide a _____.
depressants
&
euphoric rush
Opiods are classified as a Narcotic. Narcotics have pain-relieving and sleep-inducing properties and _____.
strong addictive potential
Common opiods are Morphine and _____.
heroin
Addiction is often treated with a combination of ______ ad psychological treatment.
methadone
Barbiturates are used ______, but lead to quick addiction.
to relieve anxiety or induce sleep
Withdrawal symptoms include _______.
severe convulsions
It is dangerous to mix ______ with these depressants.
alcohol
A stimulant is a drug that _____ the rate of activity of the central nervous system. Common stimulants include:
- ____.
- Amphetamines
- ____.
increases
&
-nicotine
-cocaine
Nicotine is a mild, but ____ stimulant drug found in tobacco.
highly addicitve
Nicotine is not the most dangerous aspect of smoking ____ in the blood and the development of lung cancer.
carbon monoxide and tars are responsible for decreased oxygen
Pregnant women who smoke have a higher risk of _____ preterm births, ____ babies, and stillborn babies.
miscarriage
&
low-birthweight
Amphetamines were first used during ____ to help soldier remain alert at night.
WWII
Recent evidence suggests that regular use of methamphetamine can lead to ____ dependence.
physiological
Heavy usage of methamphetamine can lead to cognitive and emotional problems, and possibly to….
neurological damage.
Cocaine is a powerful stimulant that produces feelings of euphoria and can _____ and ______.
curb hunger & pain
Snorting causes vasoconstriction and if repeated over time, can lead to deterioration of _____.
nasal cartilage
Hallucinogens are drugs that induce _____ and hallucinations. Common hallucinogens include:
- LSD
- _____.
sensory distortions
&
Marijuana
Marijuana is the most widely illicit drug in the U.S. ______ of American adults report that they currently use marijuana.
6%
Research also suggests that marijuana may interfere with memory and cause….
long term brain damage.
Self: The ____ of our impressions, thoughts, and feelings, such that we have a conscious, continuous sense of being in the world.
totality
Parts of the Self:
____, social, and ____.
physical & personal
Schema: __________.
Examples include stereotypes, prejudices, and generalizations.
A set of beliefs and feelings about something.
Role Schema: a schema about how people in _____ (e.g. boss, wife, teacher) are expected to behave.
certain roles
Person Schema: a schema about how a _____ is expected to behave.
particular individual
Self-Schema: the set of ______ we have about ourselves.
beliefs, feelings, and generalizations
Physical Self: One’s ____ of one’s physical being- for example, one’s height, hair color, race, and physical skills.
psychological sense
Roles and masks are _____ responses to the social situation.
adaptive
Personal Self: One’s private continuous sense of being oneself in the world. Personal self includes_____, ethics, your name, self-concept, ____ and the _____.
values, self-esteem, and ideal-self
Ethics:
Standards for _____.
behavior
Self-Concept: One’s perception of oneself including one’s traits and an evaluation of those traits. The self-concept includes one’s ____ and one’s ____.
self-esteem and ideal self
Self-Esteem: Self-approval.
One’s self-respect or favorable opinion of oneself. Self-esteem is neither _____. Though relatively stable over time, self-esteem can fluctuate, for better or worse.
fixed nor unchangeable
Ideal Self: One’s perception of what one ought to be and do. Also called the _____.
self-ideal
Identity Achievement. The identity status that describes individuals who _____ and committed to a relatively stable set of beliefs or a course of action.
have resolved an identity crisis
Identity Foreclosure: The identity status that describes individuals who have adopted a commitment to a set of beliefs or a course of action _____. Often, they have adopted the views of their parents without seriously questioning them.
without undergoing an identity crisis
Identity Moratorium: The identity status that describes individuals who are the the throes of an identity crisis - an _____.
intense examination of alternatives
Researchers have found that identity formation if often ____ for adolescents from ethnic minority groups.
more complicated
Primacy Effect:
The tendency to…
evaluate others in terms of first impressions
Recency Effect:
The tendency to evaluate other in terms of the ….
most recent impression
Managing First Impression:
- ______
- In class, seek ____ with your instructors.
smile
&
eye contact
Prejudice: The belief that a person or group, on the basis of assumed racial ethnic, sexual, or other features _____ characteristics or perform inadequately.
will possess negative
Types of prejudice include sexism, racism, and _____.
ageism
Discrimination: The denial of ____ to a person or group on the basis of prejudice.
priviliges
Attribution Process: The process by which people _____ about the motives and traits of themselves and others.
draw inferences
Dispositionial Attribution: An assumption that a person’s behavior is determined by _____, such as personal attitudes or goals.
internal causes
Situational Attributions: An assumption that a person’s behavior is determined by______, such as the social pressure found in a situation.
external circumstances
Fundamental Attribution Error:
The tendency to assume that others act on the basis of choice or will, even when there is evidence suggestive of the importance of their situations.
Actor-Observer Effect:
The tendency to attribute our own behavior to external, situational factor but to attribute the behavior of others to internal, dispositional factors such as choice or will.
Self-Serving Bias:
The tendency to view one’s successes as stemming from internal factors and one’s failures as stemming from external factors.
Social Influence: The area of social psychology that studies the ways in which people _____ of other people.
influence the thoughts, feelings, and behavior
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM): The view that persuasion occurs through ____ routes, a ____ (elaboration) of the content of a persuasive message, and a ____ route involving attention to associated cues that peripheral to the content of the message.
two & central route & peripheral
Counter-Arguments: People tend to believe arguments that run counter to the….
vested interests of the communicator.
Persuasive communicators are characterized by (List three):
- Attractiveness
- Likability
- Trustworthiness
We also tend to be persuaded by the ____, health professionals, and attractive individuals.
famous
Elements of the immediate environment, such as _____ can increase the likelihood of persuasion.
music
The Foot-in-the-Door:
A method for inducing compliance in which a small request is followed by a larger request.
Psychologists have long been concerned with the nature of ______obedience.
blind
_____ conducted an experiment to determine how many people would resist authority figures who made ____requests.
Stanley Milgram
&
immoral
The Milgram Studies:
_____ of the participants in the study went all the way to 450-volt shocks.
65%
The Milgram Studies:
Women and college students showed ____ results in later studies.
similar
Conformity:
Social Norms:_______ and influence the ways people behave in social situations.
Explicit and implicit rules that reflect social expectations….
The tendency to conform to social norms can be _____ or ______.
positive or maladaptive
______ Study on Conformity:
The participants experienced a fair degree of discomfort on these “key trials”.
Asch
Asch Study on Conformity:
_____ of the participants went along with the group and gave the wrong answer on at least one “key trial”.
75%
Mob Behavior Deindividuation:
The process by which group members discontinue self-evaluation and adopt group norms and attitudes.
Mob Behavior:
Diffusion of Responsibility:
The dilution or loss of individual responsibility for behavior when members of a group act in unison.
Altruism: Unselfish concern for the welfare of others. Altruism is characterized by ____ behavior.
helping
Bystander Effect: The tendency for bystanders to _____ to act to help a person in need.
fail
Observers are more likely to help is they are in a ____. Elevated mood might impart a sense of personal power.
good mood
The Helper:Who Helps?
Women are ____ likely to help.
more
Steps to Becoming More Assertive.
________: self-monitoring of social areas can help you pinpoint problem areas.
self-monitoring
Steps to Becoming More Assertive.
_____: while monitoring behavior, pay attention to irrational beliefs that lead to unassertive or aggressive behavior.
Confronting Irrational Beliefs
Steps to Becoming More Assertive.
_____: Much of our behavior is modeled after that of people we respect and admire. A therapist can help an individual mold their new behaviors.
Modeling
Steps to Becoming More Assertive.
_____: It is a good idea to try our new behaviors in non-threatening situations, such as before a mirror. This will accustom you to the sounds of assertive talk.
Behavior Rehearsal
