Midterm Flashcards
What difference does Christianity have apart from all other major religions?
The humiliation of its God as its central event.
What difference does Christianity have apart from all other major religions?
The humiliation of its God as its central event.
What were some primary components of popular Jewish faith in the first century, partially based on Daniel 7?
Cosmic struggle between good and evil the destruction of the existing world The creation of an eternal kingdom the resurrection of the dead The final judgment
Name and give a brief description of the five factions that arose among the Jews.
The Jesus movement - Followers of Jesus and his teachings
Pharisees - emphasized those Jewish traditions and practices that set them apart from pagan culture. Their name means “separated ones” and they prided themselves on their strict observance of every detail of Jewish law and their extreme intolerance of people whom they considered ritually unclean. This piety and patriotism made them respected leaders among their people.
Sadducees - Members of Jerusalem’s aristocracy. From this small group of wealthy, pedigreed families came the high priest and the lesser priests of the temple. Many of them enjoyed the sophisticated manners and fashions of Greco-Roman culture. Some even took Greek names. At the time of Jesus, these men still controlled the high Jewish council, or Sanhedrin, but they had little influence among the common people.
Zealots - group bent on armed resistance to all Romans in the fatherland. They looked back two centuries to the glorious days of the Maccabees when religious zeal combined with a ready sword to overthrow the pagan Greek overlords.
Essenes - a group that had little or no interest in politics or in warfare. Instead, they withdrew to the Judean wilderness. There, in isolated monastic communities, they studied the Scriptures and prepared themselves for the Lord’s kingdom.
What was the main theme of Jesus’ teachings and what did he mean by it?
The Kingdom of God
Both that the kingdom of God would invade human history in the future and that, through him, it was already starting to be established in our world.
What two rival groups, out of the fear of Jesus, banned together in an unusual alliance in their common goal to stop him? What separate reasons motivated this alliance?
The Pharisees and the Sadducees.
Separate Reasons:
The Sadducees feared that Jesus would spark a political uprising that would force Rome to crush Jerusalem and the Jews, causing the Sadducees to lose their privileges.
The Pharisees were aggravated by Jesus who openly violated the Sabbath laws and questioned the validity of other leas, seeming to be undermining the authority of the Jewish religion.
When Jesus shared the bread and wine with his disciples for the last time, what was the intent of the “new covenant”?
The remembrance of the Exodus from Egypt and the formation of Israel as a nation
The prophecy of Jeremiah when the covenant written on tablets of stone would be replaced by a covenant written on the hearts of men (Jeremiah 31:33-34)
A covenant of forgiveness
Why did Pilate agree to sentence Jesus over to crucifixion?
Fear of offending Caesar.
What was the fundamental difference between John’s baptism and Christian baptism?
John’s was a way of professing faith in a kingdom yet to come, whereas Christian baptism was eschatological, a kingdom already proclaimed though still to be revealed in its fullness.
How did the early Christians view the Lord’s Supper?
It looked back to Jesus’ betrayal and death and found in the events of Calvary and the empty tomb evidence of the “new covenant” promised by the prophet Jeremiah.
Where was the word “Christian” first used and how was it used?
The word Christian was first used in Antioch
It was a derogatory label for those “devotees of the Anointed One”.
What three “Worlds” was the Apostle Paul immersed and educated in?
Jewish
Greek
Roman
What concern did Paul’s “legally minded” Jewish opponents have against his teachings on grace?
They believed that if you teach justification by faith alone, people will ill imagine that once they have accepted Christ by faith it does not matter how they live.
The “end of the Apostolic Age” is usually marked by what tragic event?
The ravaging of the Temple and the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70.
Define what “Catholic Christianity” means. Who was the first person to use it?
Universal Christianity. Catholic Christianity represents more than an organization but a spiritual vision, conviction that all the Christians would be in one body
Ignatius was the first to use the term Catholic
What was the first home of Christianity? The Second? And why did it move?
Jerusalem
Antioch of Syria
Because of the fall of Jerusalem in 70 A.D.
What made the church in Rome a leader amongst the other churches?
From its beginnings this church in the capital… gained the respect and admiration of Christians throughout the empire. Once a church took root in the capital it naturally assumed leadership in Christian affairs.
Claimed the ministry of the apostles Peter and Paul.
Where was the first Latin-speaking church produced? What does a Latin speaking church imply?
North Africa Latin was spoken by the upper class; therefore this means that a Latin-speaking church would tend to be made up of upper class members.
Explain why Celsus, a critic of Christianity, would claim that Christianity only coverts “worthless and contemptible people, idiots, slaves, poor women and children.” To what extent is this true?
There is some truth to this statement. The church was reaching out to the poor and needy and did not neglect those that society deemed unworthy.
However this his statement isn’t entirely true as by the end of the 2nd century the movement became the most forceful and compelling movement within the empire and many people with the keenest minds of the day were becoming followers of Christ.
Define the men who were called “apologists.”
Apologists answered critics like Celsus and other opponents of Christianity. The word comes from Greek and means “defense” such as a lawyer gives at a trial.
What were the principal reasons for the spread of the Gospel in the early centuries?
- A burning conviction
- The gospel met a widely felt need
- The practical expression of Christian love
- Persecution
Explain the Roman policy of religious tolerance. Why were the Jews an exception? How were the Christians eventually treated by Rome and why?
Rome’s policy: tolerant of other religions so long as they paid homage to Caesar
The Jews were monotheistic and would rather revolt and shed blood than acknowledge any other God. They were given a unique toleration.
The Christians were treated as Jews at first, but when the separation between Judaism and Christianity became obvious, Christians were persecuted. After all, they were even more active in proselytizing than the Jews.
The Christians didn’t “follow the crowd” in many ways, refusing to participate in many social events. What are some events they rejected and why?
Denial of the Greek and Roman deities that they had for every aspect of life. They rejected the gods and didn’t participate in their practices.
They didn’t enter didn’t attend or support the Gladiatorial entertainment because it promoted death and the participants may be Christians.
The Christians fear of idolatry led to many difficulties in making a living. What Careers were abandoned or hindered because of this and why?
Pagan Hospitals: They were under the protection of the heathen god Aesculapius and while a sick person said in his bed, the priest would go down the aisles chanting to the god.
Military service: Soldiers were required to offer incense to the emperor, etc.
What excuse did Emperor Nero use to persecute the Christians? What was probably his motive?
He blamed the Christians for the fire that broke out in Rome that burned for six days and nights.
The rumor circulated that Nero himself caused the city to be set on fire. To turn hatred away from himself he accused the Christians for setting the fire.
What were some ways Emperor Nero would persecute Christians?
Many were crucified
Some were sewn up in the skins of wild beasts; then big dogs were let loose upon them and they were torn to pieces
Women were tied to mad bulls and dragged to death
The early Christian church was accused that their gatherings were full of sexual orgies and cannibalism. Explain where this idea might have come from.
Christians were accused of sexual sins. The charges come from the fact that one Christian meeting was called the Agape - the Love Feast - and from the custom of the “holy kiss” of peace the Christians gave to one another.
The charge of cannibalism probably started because the Lord’s Supper was practiced in secret. The heathen did not know that happened in these closed meetings, but they heard that somebody was being eaten. (Jesus - this is my body and my blood)
Explain why Christians were being accused of Atheism.
The charge arose from the fact that many within the empire could not understand an imageless worship. Monotheism held no attraction for such people. As a result they blamed Christians for insulting the gods of the state.
What is the meaning of “orthodox” as it has been defined in the history of the church?
It is purely denotative, meaning simply majority opinion.
Why was orthodoxy created?
To counter heresies
What are the two heresies about Jesus that John battles in his gospel?
Ebionites taught that Jesus was a mere man who by his scrupulous obedience to the Law was “justified” and become the Messiah.
Docetism - Christ was not really a man, he was a spectral appearenc3e. He only “seemed” to suffer for man’s sins since we all know divine phantoms are incapable of dying.
What are the fundamental tenets of dualism?
Good and evil. In line with much Greek philosophy, they identified evil with matter. Because of this they regarded any Creator God as wicked.
What makes Gnosticism very difficult to combat for Orthodox Christians?
Gnostics always claimed that had has some secret information denied their opponent; WHICH IS TO SAY: Jesus, they said, had passed on this information to the Gnostic teachers of his time and had hidden it away from the materially blinded Jews who founded the Church.
If that line of argument failed, Gnostics would appeal to a special revelation from heaven to prove their point.
What statement of faith did the early church create to combat Gnosticism and to clarify orthodox conviction?
The Apostles Creed
How did the phrase “Almighty God, the maker of heaven and earth” combat Gnosticism?
It repudiates the Gnostic idea that the created world is evil or the work of an evil god.
What about Jesus being “born of the virgin Mary” bothered the Gnostics?
Not the idea that Mary was a virgin but that Jesus was born.
In what two ways did the Scriptures serve the early Church (as well as today)?
Inspiration for believers facing martyrdom
As supreme standard for the churches threatened by heresy
Why was the term “canon” applied to the Bible?
The term in the original Greek meant “a measuring rod.” It was a standard for judging something straight. So the idea transferred to a list of books that constituted the standard or “rule” of the churches.
Jesus referred to the Jewish canon when he spoke of the law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms. What does this evidence indicate?
That Jesus nor the disciples ever quoted from the Apocrypha as Scripture.
What were the three fundamental reasons utilized as a rationale for the inclusion of a book in the canon?
A self-evidencing quality, exercising power on the lives of people who read them;
Because they were used frequently in Christian worship;
Apostolicity, written by an apostle or one who had known the apostles personally.
What portion of Scripture did Marcion reject and why?
He rejected the Old Testament
Because he saw the OT God as a God of judgmental and vindication. (He was influenced by Gnostic teaching.)
What was the two-fold importance of the acceptance of the Old Testament?
Faith for the Christian would have to reconcile both the wrath and the love of God.
The Church underscored the importance of history for the Christian faith.
What two heretics helped force the Church to establish its canon of Scripture?
Marcion
Montanus
How does the Holy Spirit function differently now with Scripture than he did with the Apostles in the early Christian “first days”?
The difference was that in the first days the Holy Spirit had enabled men to write the sacred books of the Christian faith;
In the later days the Holy Spirit enabled men to understand, to interpret, and to apply what had been written.
What were the two groups designated by Paul for leadership in the local churches he founded?
One group was called “elders” or “presbyters”;
The other was known as “deacons.”
By the late second century, who became the unchallenged leader in church affairs?
The Bishop
What was the Gnostic’s claim about “secrete wisdom”?
That Jesus had entrusted a secret wisdom to certain teachers before he ascended. These teachers, in turn, passed on this special truth to other teachers. And they, in turn, to others. So the Gnostic teachers, rather than the catholic churches, had the true philosophy.
How did Hegesippus argue against the Gnostics?
By stressing the public teaching of the churches, the Rule of Faith, and the bishops in the churches established by the apostles. To support his point he drew up succession lists of bishops, going back to the apostles, at least for Corinth and Rome.
What are the three possible answers to the dilemma of how the authority of bishops should be viewed?
The men who guided the destiny of the early church willfully and sinfully departed from a divinely authorized pattern, so that the changes they made should be repudiated.
The church and its leaders were exercising the liberty they had in the absence of any divinely authorized pattern. The government they developed may have served a good purpose in their time but it is open to change to meet the needs of later generations.
The Holy Spirit so dwelt in the church and guided its decisions that the “developments” of the early centuries in doctrine and church structure were the work not of men but of God and are, therefore, permanently binding for the church.
What were the three particular sins that were considered forgivable by God, but never by the Church?
Sexual immorality
Murder
The denial of the faith (apostasy)
What event in marked the first time the bishop of Rome claimed the special authority?
Callistus of Rome (217-222) was the first to accept repentant sinners as a matter of policy. He defended his actions by insisting that the church of Rome was the heir of Peter and the Lord had given keys to Peter to bind and to loose the sins of men.
The most violent persecution that the church had yet faced in A.D 250 by Emperor Decius created what conflict in the Church? How did the Church attempt to resolve this?
Due to many Christians denial of faith in order to live, when Decius was killed, they sought to be reemitted into the Church because “outside the church there is no salvation”. The debate was whether the bishops had the power to forgive the sin of apostasy and allow those guilty to be again a part of the Church. Because Martyrs and confessors were greatly admired, some said that confessors had a special power from God. The Holy Spirit had ordained them extraordinary so that they had the power to absolve men of their sins. Cyprian, the Bishop of Carthage, confronted those who held that belief. However, in the favor of a system of readmission, a sacrifice was to be given depending on the degree of the sin. Therefore a graded system of penance was created. The proposal was only temporarily defeated and did not die. It reappeared years later in the Roman Catholic doctrine of the Treasury of Merit and the practice of indulgences.
What did Gnosticism demonstrate about Christian pursuit of culture?
Gnosticism demonstrated that Christian pursuit of culture can go too far.
What was Clements primary purpose and aim?
Not purely theological but pastoral. His aimed to win not arguments, but men to Christ, and lead them to salvation.
Clement argued that Philosophy was “useful” because it did what?
It was preparation for Christianity. Philosophy was needful to the Greeks for righteousness. Now it is useful to piety for those who attain faith through demonstration. Philosophy was a schoolmaster to the Greeks, as the law was to the Hebrews, preparing the way for those who are perfected by Christ.
In what two ways did Clement and Origen contrast the heretical Gnostics?
Gnostics left the apostolic gospel in shambles. But Clement and Origen remained thoroughly loyal to the essential message of Peter and Paul even as they presented it in philosophical form.
Behavior, Gnostic heretics were not interested in the training of character. But Clement insisted that spiritual insight comes to the pure in heart, to those humble enough to walk with God as a child with his father, to those whose motive for ethical behavior goes far beyond fear of punishment or hope of reward to a love of the good for its own sake.
What event gave way to Origen’s succession of Clement? What age was Origen when he did so?
Persecution broke out against Christians in Alexandria and Clement was forced to flee the city.
He then surrendered leadership of the school to Origen who was 18 years old.
What are the three levels of meaning in the Bible according to Origen?
The literal sense
The moral application to the soul
And the allegorical or spiritual sense, which refers to the mysteries of the Christian faith.
What doctrinal error of Origen caused him the most trouble? What lessons can be learned from this?
All creatures, including the devil, would one day be restored to God. Hell would be emptied.
Origen simply went too far. He proposed as a doctrine what can only remain as a desire.
What were the social and political factors which paved the way for Constantine to declare a Christian Empire?
During the succession of 30 emperors, chaos and anarchy spread throughout the empire. The slaying of one Caesar was a signal to Roman troops somewhere to acclaim a new ruler.
What led Galerius to issue an “edict of toleration” and end the persecution of Christians?
The effects of the persecution on the public opinion was tremendous as the pagans themselves were sickened by so much bloodshed. The throne could no longer risk of continuing the torturing, maiming, and killing of Christians. For political and practical reasons the edict of toleration was issued and the persecution was stopped.
Describe the events leading to the conversion of Constantine. What convinced him of the “power of Christ and the superiority of the Christian religion”?
Anything including some of the following: The deterioration of the tetrarchy; the battle with Maxentius; battle Milvian bridge; fight for control of the Empire; etc.
In a dream he saw a cross in the sky and the words, “in this sign conquer”. This convinced him to advance. When on 28 October 312 he achieved his brilliant victory over the troops of Maxentius, he looked upon his success as proof of the power of Christ and the superiority of the Christian religion.
For what reasons to some historians doubt the authenticity of Constantine’s conversion? For what reasons to others consider his conversion authentic?
Plenty of paganism remained. He conspired and he murdered. He even retained his title Pontifex Maximus as head of the state religious cult. He was only baptized on his deathbed. Etc.
Favored Christianity openly. Gave Christian ministers the same tax breaks as pagan priests. He abolished execution by crucifixion and punishment by gladiatorial games. He made Sunday a public holiday. He funded church buildings. He led a Christian family life. After his baptism, he refused to wear the imperial purple. Etc.
Though the advantages of a Christian emperor were real enough, what “price” did the Church pay?
Constantine ruled Christian bishops as he did his civil servants.
He demanded unconditional obedience to official pronouncements, even when they interfered with church matters.
The church was no longer composed primarily of convinced believers but many were politically ambitious, religiously disinterested and still half-rooted in paganism.
What did Emperor Theodosius do in 380 AD?
He made belief in Christianity a matter of imperial command.
What led Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, to challenge Emperor Theodosius? What did Ambrose do and what was the outcome?
What led to it: The people killed a governor who refused to allow a homosexual charioteer race. In turn, Emperor Theodosius killed 7,000 people. Ambrose was against this.
Ambrose refused the emperor Communion until he had confessed his sin. For a while Theodosius stayed away from church, but in the end he accepted Ambrose’s terms. In front of a crowded congregation he took off his splendid imperial robes and asked pardon for his sins. He had to do so on several occasions until at last, on Christmas Day, Ambrose gave him the sacrament.
Describe the beliefs of Arius concerning the Trinity.
The word (who assumed flesh in Jesus Christ) was not the true God. Jesus had an entirely different nature from God. Jesus was not eternal or omnipotent. A created being.
What helped popularize the views of Arius?
Its appeal to former pagans in its commonality to the religion of their youth.
An easier concept to understand for pagans than the “Word existing from all eternity, and that he is equal with the Father.
He (Arius) combined an eloquent preaching style with a flair for public relations.
Who was Athanasius and what had he contributed to the Council of Nicea?
Who (any of the following): Advisor to Alexander, opponent of Arius at the council. Became bishop of Alexandria.
Contribution: Victorious at the council of Nicea; defended orthodoxy (with “homoousios”)
Who were the Semi-Arians and what did they believe about Christ?
A moderate group, sometimes called the Semi-Arians, broke away from the strict Arians and attempted to give a new interpretation to the “one substance” statement.
They defended the use of homoios, meaning “similar,” to describe the Word’s relation to the Father …OR… The Semi-Arians, argued for homoiousios because they held that the Word was a being “like” God the Father.
Athanasius defined the relationship between the Father and the Son as homoousios. How is this different from the Semi-Arian designation homoiousios?
Homoousios = Jesus has the same substance as the Father; Homoiousios = Jesus has a similar substance to the Father (but different).
The early Church had two famous schools of theology. What were these schools and how did their Christologies differ?
The Alexandrian school of theology, led by Origen, emphasized the divine nature of Christ which developed into a fervent mysticism centering in the divine Word (Logos). This divine Word is seen as beginning in Heaven and moving to earth.
The Antioch school of theology emphasized the human nature of Christ which made Christ’s deeds the example to follow. While man’s human nature turns to sin, Christ’s human nature turned to obedience. In this view, Christ is seen as beginning on earth and looking to Heaven.
What were the four patriarchal cities?
Alexandria
Antioch
Constantinople
Rome
Describe how the four patriarchal churches interacted with each other? I.e. what did each church tend to think about the others and why?
SUMMARY: *Alexandria was jealous of Constantinople’s influence. *Rome was jealous of Constantinople as well. *Antioch and Alexandria were jealous of each other (being closer together).
Alexandra and Rome tended to support each other and Antioch to go along with Constantinople.
On Alexandria’s part this reflected the jealousy that proud and ancient city felt at the rise of the upstart capital in the east, Constantinople. Rome, too, while for the time content to extend its influence over the imperial dominions in the west, was not happy with the growing arrogance of the “new Rome” in the east. On the other hand, Antioch and Alexandria had long been at loggerheads, as rivals, in the east. If Antioch could not gain preeminence, it preferred to see it go to the church in the new capital rather than to its old rival on the Nile.
Name and describe the heresy condemned by the Council of Constantinople in 381 AD.
Apollinarianism, taught by Apollinarius (something like this). The Word (the Son) inhabited a human body; but there was no human soul. Or Christ had one nature (divine/human).
Who was Nestorius and what was his view of Christ?
Preacher at Antioch then bishop of Constantinople.
Nestorius emphasized the humanity of Christ by a “conjunction” or merging of wills rather than that of an essential “union.” OR emphasized the humanity of Christ too strongly.
Who was Eutyches and what was his view of Christ?
Spiritual leader of a monastery near Constantinople.
Monophysitism, which combined the divine and human natures together so that the human was absorbed into the divine.
“Christ in the Major Church Councils”: List the short summary statements provided by Shelley for the following major church councils:
Nicaea = Christ is fully divine Constantinople = Christ is fully human Ephesus = Christ is a unified person Chalcedon = Christ is human and divine in one person
Who is regarded as the first monk?
St. Anthony
How did Constantine’s conversion influence Christianity and why did this motivate some to become monks?
There was a decline in Christian commitment. The stalwart believers whom Diocletian killed were replaced by a mixed multitude of half-converted pagans. Once Christians had laid down their lives for the truth; now they slaughtered each other to secure the prizes of the church. = compromise / inauthenticity.
Monks tried to escape from compromise in the Church. “The hermit often fled, then, not so much from the world as from the world in the church.”
What did the monks protest and what danger did their protest cause?
“His protest of a corrupt institution led him into the dangers of a pronounced individualism. Against the great imperial institution, the channel of divine grace, the early monks set the life of the soul, face to face with God.”
Describe how the first Christian monastery came about.
In the year 320, a former soldier named Pachomius instituted the first Christian monastery. Instead of permitting the monks to live singly or in a group of hermits, each a law to himself, Pachomius established a regulated common life, in which the monks ate, labored, and worshiped. His plan called for fixed hours, manual work, dress in uniform garb, and strict discipline.
What was the threefold vow of monks who aimed for the “imitation of Christ”?
(1) Poverty, (2) chastity and (3) obedience
Who provided the constitution for Western monasticism?
Benedict of Norsia
List some of the pros and cons of monasticism.
Any
How has Augustine shaped Catholic theology? How has he shaped Protestant theology?
Roman Catholicism draws upon Augustine’s doctrine of the church
And Protestants upon his views of sin and grace.
What did Pelagius teach and why did it arouse Augustine’s vigorous opposition?
Pelagius denied that human sin is inherited from Adam. Man is free to act righteously or sinfully. Moreover, death is not a consequence of Adam’s disobedience. Adam introduced sin into the world but only by his corrupting example. There is no direct connection between his sin and the moral condition of mankind. Almost all the human race has sinned; but it is possible not to sin and some people have in fact lived without sin.
This was a sharp contrast to Augustine’s own experience. He sensed profoundly the depth of his sin and hence the greatness of God’s salvation. He felt that nothing less than irresistible divine power (grace) could have saved him from his sin and only constantly inflowing divine grace could keep him in the Christian life.
Define Augustine’s “two cities”.
The city of God contained those chosen by God to be saved, who are born of grace and called to the city of God for all eternity. The city of man contains the mass of godless, who live the earthly life of men.
What was Augustine’s view on the relationship between Church and State?
Augustine considered the church the only human community that worked for the building of the City of God. The state had its place in suppressing crime and preserving peace. But since the state was based on the power of sin, it must submit to the laws of the Christian Church.
What important teaching regarding the papacy in the Roman Catholic Church was defined at the First Vatican Council?
The council defined that Christ established the papacy with the apostle Peter, and the Bishop of Rome as his successor bears the supreme authority of the whole church.
What are three reasons “honor surrounded” the name of the Church in Rome?
Rome was the imperial capital, it grew to be very large in spite of persecution, it claimed Peter and Paul as its founders.
Up to the time of Constantine history offers no conclusive evidence that the bishop of Rome…
Exercised jurisdiction outside of Rome.
What are the two ways that Church organization developed in the third and fourth centuries?
The authority of church council
The authority of certain bishops over other bishops
In theory, the bishops from the churches were all equal…
But in practice this was seldom the case.
As the Church grew, what structure did it adopt?
The structure of the empire
When the capital of the empire moved from Rome to Constantinople the authority of the Roman Bishop was further established. Why?
In Rome, the weakness of the Roman Empire in the West led to a growing independence of the bishop of Rome, the patriarch of the west.
What does an Eastern Orthodox believer think about icons of Jesus and the saints?
As manifestations of the heavenly ideal, not the works of men.
They are a kind of window between the earthly and the celestial worlds. Through the icon the heavenly beings manifest themselves to the worshiping congregation and unite with it.
What is the great theme of Orthodox theology?
The incarnation of God
And the re-creation of man
What does Eastern Orthodoxy think of Constantine and his reign?
Constantine remains the holy initiator of the Christian world, the hero of the victory of light over darkness that crowned the courageous struggle of the martyrs.
What did Constantine do to give rise to the emperor’s title as “equal to the apostles”?
Constantinople was to be the Christian center of the empire. In the Church of the Twelve Apostles, which Constantine had built, he prepared in the midst of the twelve symbolic tombs of the apostles a thirteenth for himself. Did not the conversion of the empire fulfill the prophecy of the apostles? This thirteenth tomb gave rise to the emperor’s title as equal to the apostles.
Why did Constantine feel obligated to unite the different Christian traditions of doctrine and practice?
He was superstitiously anxious that God would hold him personally responsible for these divisions and quarrels among the Christians.
Which emperor opposed the use of icons and what were his reasons?
Emperor Leo III
Perhaps he was motivated by a sense of the empire’s guild. Christianity taught that God punished the children of Israel because of their idolatry
Who created the argument that would justify the use of religious icons? What was the argument?
Jon Mansour
An image was never of the same substance as its original, but merely imitated it. An icon’s only significance is as a copy and reminder of the original. His argument is based on Plato’s noting that everything we sense in this world is really an imitation of the eternal, original ‘form,’ which can be known only by the soul in the nonmaterial word.. “To deny, as the iconoclasts did, that any true icon could depict Christ, was, in effect, to deny the possibility of the Incarnation.
What preconceived legend was shattered after the battle of Adrianople in 378 and what came as a result?
The battle of Adrianople destroyed the legend of the invincibility of the Roman legions
Ushered in a century and a half of chaos.
Why was it not very difficult to get the barbarians to nominally adhere to Christianity?
Because they wanted to enter the grandeur that was Rome. Christianity was, in their eyes, the Roman religion.
What heresy did many of the barbarians accept and why?
Arianism
It was easier for them to understand from their pagan backgrounds
To whom can the conversion of the Irish be traced and when?
St. Patrick
Early in the fifth century
Who was Clovis, what led to his conversion and why is this significant?
First barbarian chief to convert to Christianity
Any of the following: His wife was Christian—a Burgundian princess who talked to him about God. His child fell ill after baptism and his wife’s prayers healed him. He prayed for help from the Christian God in battle and won.
He led his army and people to conversion/baptism. (Like another Constantine.)
How did the early Franks picture Jesus? Who was their favorite apostle and why?
Jesus was a tribal war-god.
They particularly admired Saint Peter
Because his noblest exploit in their eyes was his eagerness to wield his sword to protect the Lord Jesus and to slice of f the ear of the high priest’s servant.
Who was responsible for the evangelism of England and what event firmly established his success?
Augustine of Canterbury with Benedictine monks.
King Ethelbert granted favor: land for a monastery. I’ll accept the conversion of Ethelbert or of English kings.
What was Gregory’s attitude concerning his election as bishop of Rome?
He didn’t want to be pope. He refused the office and even fled from the city, hiding in the forest, until he was found and dragged back to Rome. After notifying Constantinople, officials consecrated him St. Peter’s successor on 3 September 590.
What did Gregory stress in his book Pastoral Care?
The pastor should not be so absorbed in external cases as to forget the inner life of the soul.
What title did Gregory find irritating and why?
Universal Bishop
He characterized it as a foolish, proud, profane, wicked, pestiferous, blasphemous, and diabolical usurpation, and compared anyone who used it to Lucifer.
What title did Gregory give himself?
Servant of the servants of God.
What was Gregory’s teaching about baptism and sinning afterward?
God grants forgiving grace freely without any merit on man’s part, but for sins committed after baptism man must make atonement by penance.
Define penance.
Simply a form of punishment inflicted by the man himself instead of by God.
For either man himself, by penance, punishes sin in himself; or God, taking vengeance on him, smites it.
Penance involves repentance, which must be sincere and of the heart, and also confession and meritorious works.
In Gregory’s theology, what three “helps” does the Christian have?
The help of the saints
Holy relics
The Holy Eucharist
Describe Gregory’s view of the Eucharist and its power.
The Eucharist is a communion with Christ whose body and blood are really present in the bread and wine. Feeding upon them will nourish and strengthen our spiritual life.
The marvelous power of the Eucharist, however, lies in its sacrificial character.
How did Pope Innocent and other great popes of the later 12th and 13th centuries view their offices?
They saw their office as a mediator between God and man, who “shall judge all and be judged by no one.”
What were the two chief “weapons” used by the papacy in support of its authority? Explain how these weapons were used and why they were successful.
The threat of excommunication: the person would be cut off from the Church and therefore unable to function in society in various ways (anything along these lines).
Interdict: like excommunication, but for whole groups of people instead of individuals.
What three reasons motivated the crusaders from western Europe to attempt to expel the Muslims from the Holy Land?
Religious fervor
Love of adventure
Dreams of personal profit
What was the crusader battle cry and what did it mean?
“Deus Vult” or “God wills it”
“The crusaders were fully aware of the spiritual rewards promised to them.” What was the primary spiritual reward?
Full forgiveness of their past sins
What were the three “primary purposes of the crusades”?
To win the Holy Land
To check the advance of Islam
To heal the schism between the Eastern and Western Churches.
What are the two basic truths which the popes rejected but which we must never forget?
Christianity’s highest satisfactions are not guaranteed by possession of special places.
The sword is never God’s way to extend Christ’s church.
What was the unique method of scholarship which emerged in the Middle Ages and what was its aim?
“Scholasticism”
Its purpose was to reconcile Christian doctrine and human reason into an orderly system.
Learning had originally been limited primarily to what group?
The clergy
What were the seven liberal arts of the cathedral school curriculum?
(1) Grammar, (2) Rhetoric, (3) Logic, (4) Arithmetic, (5) Geometry, (6) Music, (7) Astronomy
