Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Types of Questions

A
  • Questions of fact

- Questions of value

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2
Q

Questions of fact

A

not looking for opinion or evaluation - looking for numbers or observation everyone can agree on.

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3
Q

Questions of value

A

asking for what’s beautiful, good, useful. subjective evaluations. looking for judgment.

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4
Q

Empiricism

A

thought of observing something in systematic way to test and prove things

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5
Q

Tenacity

A

believing something because you believe it. we’ve always believed it. way it is and way it will be.

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6
Q

Methods of Proof (intent to establish truth) (TAIS)

A
  • tenacity
  • authority (he said)
  • intuition (common sense, your experience, self-evident truth)
  • scientific method (empiricism)
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7
Q

Weaknesses or Criticism

A
  • polemic
  • ideosyncrasy
  • random
  • arbitrary
  • made up as we go along
  • hunch
  • guess
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8
Q

Scientific Method - follow these tests: (SSPETH)

A
  • systematic ( going to do it this way and every time. I’d get the same results)
  • self-corrective (built into the system is a way of showing if it’s not working)
  • problem oriented (questioned. research question. a good one is worthwhile, narrow and grounded. single, narrow, and clear)
  • empirical (not relying on above weaknesses. tested and measured)
  • theory-directed (once you test those hypotheses, should lead you to theory)
  • hypothesis-guided ( prediction implies a relationship of what is and what will happen
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9
Q

Hypothesis

A

explanation/possible answer for research question

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10
Q

a good hypothesis must have these attributes: (SCOUU)

A
  • structured (“if…then…”)
  • relational (states a relationship between conditions or observations)
  • based on previous knowledge
  • objective verification (by direct empirical measurement
  • uses conceptual definitions (find in dictionary/standard def)
  • uses operational definitions (how to find it tested/testable “on a scale of 1-10)
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11
Q

What is Comm theory?

A
  • the attempt to explain or represent a phenomenon
  • intent is to guide people in making decisions and taking action (not just observation)
  • representation of the state of affairs at any given time (shows the status)
  • possibilities: trying to develop new theory, checking out a theory, remember theory and research must be integrated
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12
Q

Meanings of Theory

A

1) Theory as abstract Ideas
2) Theory as predictable findings
3) Concept explication (combining the two/looking to explain concepts

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13
Q

weaknesses of everyday knowing (ACOF)

A
  • accuracy (problems with concept of truth: don’t say what is true, “believe”, “feel” - but what she said she feels, “thinks”
  • cognitive conservatism (learning/teaching. bad thing. we tend to believe before we see it - draw conclusions without having facts)
  • over-generalization (nobody passed the Q…rather, I talked to 5 people and none of them passed)
  • form (EBSAHRA)
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14
Q

forms of weaknesses of every day knowing (EBSAHRA)

A
  • ethnocentrism (I come from BR - we’re better than everyone else. LSU > SLU)
  • begging the question (skip over info, assumes you know the answer)
  • slippery slope (snowball effect, this then that then, question after question without source)
  • ad ignorantiam (based on ignorance, if it ain’t broke don’t fix it, driving a broken car)
  • hasty generalization (don’t have the evidence to say that, insufficient evidence, “this class sucks”)
  • red herring (trying to cover up something by focussing on something else)
  • appeal to tradition (we’ve always done it this way, watch out for in 3-legged stool)
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15
Q

metatheoretical considerations are:

A

what’s at the basis of theory. three primary components.

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16
Q

Three primary components of metatheory: (OEA)

A

1) Ontology (the nature/study of reality)
2) Epistemology (study of knowledge)
3) Axiology (study of values)

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17
Q

Three stances on ontology

A
  • realist stance
  • nominalist stance
  • social constructionist stance
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18
Q

Three research perspectives and paradigms: (PIC)

A
  • Postivism
  • Interpretivism
  • Critical Perspective
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19
Q

Positivism

A
  • quantitative research perspective
  • evidence gathered by sci. method supersedes all other methods
  • relatively recent adoption
  • basic idea: you’ve got to investigate it/ trying to study and understand info
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20
Q

Interpretivism

A
  • qualitative perspective
  • must investigate but not understand. dependent on interpretation - not write/wrong, it’s their culture.
  • phenomenology (a qualitative method) first hand method. you want this thing run properly? do it yourself.
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21
Q

Critical Perspective

A
  • instead of explaining something or understanding something, goal is to challenge things/comm practices that are clearly unjust or is/isn’t efficient
  • boss want’s it changed because he wants to. will you go with it or not?
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22
Q

Types of research ***KNOW THE DIF

A
  • proprietary research (done by industry/business, funded well, purpose to sell/conduct business)
  • scholarly research (what we do, contributing to knowledge and passing it on)
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23
Q

Inductive Model/ Qualitative Research

A
  • gen to spec. - known as grounded theory
  • starts with gathering data, then observing patterns then developing theory
  • emphasizes a naturalistic interpretation of the world
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24
Q

Inductive method best suited to these situations:

A
  • when not too much is previously known about the topic
  • when topic tends to be more personal
  • when it is desired to generate a lot of detail about small or isolated item
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25
Q

Prominent qualitative operations:

A
  • Observation
  • Participation
  • Interviews
  • Focus groups
  • Reviewing documents
  • Gathering life histories
  • Exploring one’s own life
  • Field notes
  • Transcripts
  • Narratives
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26
Q

Deductive Model/ Quantitative Research

A
  • spec. to gen; known as theory-driven model
  • begins with theory, then to gathering evidence to evaluate that theory
  • assumes the world is objective and can be measured
  • quantitative often associated with deductive way of explaining
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27
Q

Prominent quantitative operations:

A
  • experiments
  • questionnaires
  • surveys
  • interviews with statistical method
  • secondary data analysis
  • numerical coding
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28
Q

epistemological assumption

A

assumptions about what constitutes knowledge. foundation in the development of criteria for assessing the value or worth of data generated by research. (basic of a theory)

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29
Q

unscientific sources of knowledge (CRIPT)

A
  • Common Sense (what appears to be obvious answers to comm questions)
  • Rationalism (deriving answers through deduction, self-fulfilling prophecies)
  • Intuition (vague feelings, gut reactions)
  • Personal Experience
  • Tenacity (unquestioned beliefs)
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30
Q

Steps of Scientific Method

A

1) observe a phenomenon that needs to be explained
2) construct provisional explanations or pose hypotheses
3) design as adequate a test of the hypotheses as possible (quant or qual)
4) execute the test and analyze
5) accept, reject, or modify our hypotheses based on outcome of test

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31
Q

charateristics of sci. method (SSPETH)

A

1) emperical
2) problem-oriented
3) hypothesis-guided
4) theory directed
5) systematic
6) self-corrective

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32
Q

Research Question standards

A

1) worthwhile
2) narrow
3) grounded in theory

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33
Q

Quantitative logic

A

1) Variance

2) Statistical significance

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34
Q

Primary Quantitative methods (3-legged stool)

A

1) survey (questions to get info)
2) experimental (her people into a lab and try it out)
3) content analysis (look at reviews/content and count them up)

35
Q

Mass Communication Theories (BGACIUSSM)

A
  • bullet
  • gatekeeper
  • agenda setting
  • cultivation theory
  • information gap/knowledge gap
  • uses and gratifications
  • spiral of silence
  • sex and violence
  • mcluhan’s trio
36
Q

Human Communication Theories (RAPSI)

A
  • Rhetorical
  • Attribution
  • Persuasion
  • Small Group
  • Internet
37
Q

Organizational and PR Theories (LDCPHFE)

A
  • legitimation
  • diffusion
  • credibility
  • political communication
  • health communication
  • feminism
  • ethics
38
Q

Qualitative Research Methods (HLEIENPGCCDQPF)

A
  • historical (how did this get started?)
  • legal (legal consequences involved)
  • ethical audit (go and analyze someone in terms of their ethical practices)
  • intensive interviews (round up indv and do interv)
  • ethnography (looking at how culture functions in specific group/lots of org comm
  • narrative (looka t inside stories
  • phenomenology (people’s experiences in a particular situation)
  • grounded theory (inductive model?)
  • case study
  • conversational analysis (analyze everyday interactions compared to what people say)
  • discourse analysis (how people use language to establish their identity)
  • qual textual analysis (look at dif themes and characteristics/det overall themes)
  • performance study (let’s re-enact exactly what happened)
  • feminist study (look at concepts of gender and then how we construct our ideas based on that
39
Q

Quantative research as a paradigm is known by three other names:

A

1) naturalistic inquiry ( instead of lab, catching people in natural environment to experiment)
2) interpretive turn (research is interpretative and not numbers)
3) hermeneutic (observations not based on scientific research) empiricism (must have two things: material conditions - things you can observe in natural environment - and social practices - how we work in society)

40
Q

characteristics of hermeneutic empiricism (MGCFAES)

A
  • Multiple domains of experience
  • grant of understanding
  • centrality of communication
  • focus on relationships rather than separate entities
  • acceptance of agency
  • emphasis on historic performance
  • subjectivity of analysis
41
Q

social constructionism perspective

A

perspective that communication is the way we use to understand reality (core of qual research)

42
Q

main aspects for qualitative research (MMIRBG)

A
  • multiple concept (possible that multiple realities can exist in one situation/come up with multiple answers)
  • meaning (developed in 4 ways: relationships, context, situations, circumstances)
  • interpretive (evil is bias, not subjectivity. we know it’s subjective)
  • researcher/study influence (reason you’re studying this can affect the study/results. your involvement can affect research)
  • bases of evaluation (authenticity, credibility, trustworthiness)
  • goal (change. on a moral level, ethical level, critical level, political level)
43
Q

IRB history

A
  • Kinsey Reports

- Milgram Experiments

44
Q

Ethics: respect for persons

A
  • principle of informed consent (they must know exactly what’s going on and what you’ll do with data
  • vulnerable populations (be concerned for children mentally unstable, with a record, employees in work situation
45
Q

nonmaleficence (do no harm) and beneficence (benefitting people

A
  • condifentiality (any participant must be guaranteed it’s confidential
  • anonymity (you know who they are and supervisors, but info will go no further)
46
Q

justice (ethics)

A
  • have to have idea that we will have qual risk and benefits
  • no bias
  • pick subjects randomly
47
Q

including participants in co-constructed research (LMP)

A
  • ligitimation (make sure representative of population is valid)
  • member checks (providing participants with chance to look at whole process and voice disagreement. they must have freedom to back out and should have plan for this)
  • participatory action research (strategy in which most involved people within a group are allowed to have input in research
48
Q

IRBs

A
  • Institutional Research/ Internal Review Board

- created by organizations to assure ethics standards

49
Q

IRB requirement

A
  • depends on isnstitution

- anything involving children and illegal stuff will be altered

50
Q

IRB oversight

A

protect participants

51
Q

IRB purpose

A
  • protect the org (make sure people in organizations will do research correctly)
  • Protect:
    1) org from legal repercussions
    2) org from economic problems (lose fed funds)
    3) research participants form being manipulated
52
Q

Unethical Decision Making

A
  • plagiarism
  • lying (intention to deceive)
  • destroying data
  • intentionally submitting questionable data
  • concealing objection to research
  • distort (caricature) view of others
  • writing a report that intentionally makes it difficult to understand (best research is simplified and easy to understand)
53
Q

Attributes Distinguishing Mass Comm research from other comm research:

A

public nature

limited feedback

54
Q

goal of research question

A

jumpstart the heuristic (investigative process on a scientific level) process: theory - research objectives - research question - hypotheses

55
Q

standards of a good RQ

A
  • 1 sentence
  • interrogative (yes/no, true/false)
  • not dichotomous (implies a relationship)
  • focus on measureable outcome)
56
Q

setting up a good research question

A
  • conceptual defs

- operational defs

57
Q

types of RQs

A
  • questions of definition (attempt to define what a concept means. criticism: not questions with definitive answers)
  • questions of fact (asking what has happened or what will happen - not asking if fact or not by why occuring)
58
Q

goal of hypotheses

A

to move forward from research Q

59
Q

standards of a good hypothesis

A
  • reasonable outcomes
  • can be multiple (use symbols H1, H2…)
  • must be measurable (whole point)
  • will form basis of method
  • 1 sentence
  • declarative sentence
  • not educated guess
  • description of a relationship between variables
60
Q

Relationships in Hypotheses

A
  • relationship of association (where one is found, other will be found, does not address causality, positive or negative direction may be examined)
  • relationship of causality (where one variable is said to cause another variable, implies association well, positive or negative direction may be examined)
  • null hypothesis (not nec. bad, no relationship found)
61
Q

atributes of RQ for Qualitative research

A
  • data replaced by words
  • naturalistic (all this qual research means we go into the field.
  • In vivo: not only does research put together a naturalistic experiment, the experimenter is actually involved
62
Q

Gatekeeper theory

A

a process takes place in deciding content of the information presented. gatekeeper is person in process that has most influence on what info make sit in

63
Q

Directions of Gatekeeper Theory

A
  • traditional (news org. mainly looked at in terms of editors and what they’re trying to accomplish)
  • interpersonal comm (in relationship, someone stands out as gatekeeper of info, like how couples work and communicate)
  • emerging (audience members. internet, trying to put everything on there because it will fit. YOU are the gatekeeper)
64
Q

Research examines gatekeeping on five levels (IRCSS)

A

1) individuals (audience members - effects this portion but not that one)
2) routine practices of comm work (deadlines, having to publish certain length - play into what info is passed on)
3) communication organizations
4) social institutions (industry as a whole - McMannus)
5) societies (whole neighborhood/community - what it considers to be socially acceptable)

65
Q

Variables: fundamental principles

A
  • concepts that can take on more than one value

- single object cannot be a variable

66
Q

variables: conceptual definition

A

written def of the variables of the study

67
Q

variables: operational definition

A

observable characteristics of variable

  • measured (how it can be observed
  • experimental (how it can be manipulated)
68
Q

dimensions of variables

A
  • unidemensional concepts (focus on one dimension of relationship) (headlines)
  • multidemensional concepts (looking at more than one dimension (headlines and photos)
69
Q

types of variables

A
  • independent
  • dependent
  • extraneous (confounding, mediating, moderating)
70
Q

independent variables

A
  • determines value of a concept
  • does not depend on other factors for its value
  • variable to be manipulated to study effect
71
Q

dependent variables

A
  • describes value of concept
  • depends on independent variable for value
  • variable will change if independent variable is manipulated
72
Q

extraneous variables (makes finding the relationship between variables difficult

A
  • confounding variables (effects of 2 Vs indistinguisgable (independent and dependent)
  • mediating ( a go-between betwen indep and dep so that situaiton is created in which another variable must be in place before a manipulation of the indep can show up in the dep)
  • moderating (another go between, this time 2 things affecting both independent and depent variables
73
Q

checking how to make choices on how to proceed with measurement

A
  • self report (when one person measures his/her own beliefs. error: social desirability)
  • other report(when person measures beliefs, attitues, values or interest sin another person (error: ethnocentrism - pre-conceived notions of what’s right
  • observing behavior (set up research setting in lab in which behavior - not beliefs, etc. - are observed. error: hawthorne effect)
74
Q

social desirability

A

feeling swayed to present themselve sin a particular way they desire

75
Q

hawthorne effect

A

people alter their behavior because they know they are being observed

76
Q

measurement of variables (NOIR)

A
  • nominal level measurement (no value of judgment, if something is good/bad)
  • ordinal level measurement (ranking or ordering as greater than, less than, equal)
  • interval level measurement ( focuses on relative position and establishing distances between points on a scale. likert, semantic differntial, thurstone)
  • Ratio level measurement (has a zero point)
77
Q

likert scale

A

most common. numbers with middle point. 1-2-3-4-5

78
Q

semantic differential scale

A

measures personal meaning (attributes) - pleasant, authoritative, experience, knowledgeable

79
Q

Thurstone

A

measures feelings ( I feel confident, ready, want to finish, plan to celebrate)

80
Q

Types of relationships among variables

A
  • reversible and irreversible (can’t change direction)
  • deterministic and stochastic (dep will always result from indep, v. not always)
  • sequential and coextensive (must get sequence just right for action to take place v. actions or variables must happen simultaneously)
  • sufficient and contingent (suff: only 1 variable needed to result in change in another variable v. more than one is needed)
  • necessary and substitutable (one spec. variable must be present for change - no other will do v. another may be substituted to achieve same result
81
Q

Bernard Cohen 1963 quote

A

media doesn’t tell us what to think but what to think about

82
Q

how agenda setting works

A

orientation (we have a psychological need to be led/motivated to do things)
repetitiveness and pervasiveness (rep: repeated, per: how many times we see it/dominates other topics)

83
Q

who sets media agenda

A
  • sources that provide information for news stories
  • daily interactions among news organizations
  • journalists’ norms and traditions