Midterm 2 - Short Answer Flashcards
- What is the difference between utilitarianism and egoism?
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory that focuses on maximizing overall happiness for the greatest number of people, considering everyone’s well-being equally. Egoism, on the other hand, asserts that individuals should act in their own self-interest, prioritizing personal benefit over the collective good.
- How does the utilitarianism (felicific, or hedonic) calculus work?
The felicific or hedonic calculus, proposed by Jeremy Bentham, is a method for measuring and comparing the pleasures and pains caused by different actions. It evaluates the consequences of an action based on factors such as intensity, duration, certainty, proximity, fecundity (likelihood of future pleasure), and purity (chance of pain following pleasure).
- What does Mill mean when he says its better “to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”?
John Stuart Mill is emphasizing that the quality of pleasure is more important than the quantity. While a pig or a fool may enjoy basic, physical pleasures, a human or philosopher like Socrates can experience higher, intellectual pleasures, even if it means facing dissatisfaction. Mill argues that striving for intellectual or moral growth is preferable to living a life of simple, unreflective satisfaction.
- Explain the difference between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism by applying it to an example.
The key difference is that act utilitarianism evaluates individual actions, while rule utilitarianism focuses on the long-term effects of following general rules.
- What is the difference in Kant’s thought between a hypothetical imperative and the categorical imperative?
A hypothetical imperative is conditional, telling you what to do to achieve a specific goal or desire (e.g., “If you want to pass the exam, you should study”).
A categorical imperative, on the other hand, is unconditional and applies universally, regardless of personal goals (e.g., “You should tell the truth”), as it is based on moral law.
- What are the two forms of the categorical imperative?
First Form (Universalizability): This states that you should act according to a rule (maxim) that you could will to be a universal law for everyone. Before taking an action, you should ask whether it would be morally acceptable if everyone did the same thing.
Second Form (Humanity as an End): This emphasizes that you should treat others, and yourself, as ends in themselves, not merely as a means to an end. It means respecting the inherent dignity and autonomy of all individuals, ensuring they are not used solely for personal gain.
- What does Kant mean when he says that “Nothing can be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification, except a good will”—and how does this relate to his normative theory?
he means that the good will is the only thing that is intrinsically good, independent of its consequences. A good will is one that acts out of duty and moral principles, rather than personal desires or inclinations. Other qualities like intelligence, power, or happiness are only good if they are guided by a good will.
- What does Charles Mills mean by “black radical Kantianism”?
Black Radical Kantianism, as proposed by Charles Mills, combines Kantian ethics with a critique of racial injustice. Mills adapts Kant’s principles of human dignity and respect to address the systemic racism and inequality faced by Black people. By integrating Kant’s ideas about universal human rights with a focus on racial oppression, Mills offers a moral philosophy that not only upholds universal human dignity but also directly confronts the realities of racial exploitation and injustice.
- In what way is natural law theory teleological?
Natural law theory is teleological because it believes that everything, including human beings, has an inherent purpose or goal (telos). According to this theory, moral rules are derived from understanding this natural purpose. For example, humans are naturally inclined to seek happiness, live in society, and fulfill basic needs. These inclinations inform the moral laws that guide how we should act, reflecting a purpose-driven view of human nature.
- What is the role of “reason” in natural law and natural rights theories?
In natural law theory, reason is the tool through which humans can understand the moral order of the universe, helping them discern what is right or wrong based on human nature and the natural world.
In natural rights theory, reason is also emphasized, as it allows individuals to recognize and protect their inherent rights (like life, liberty, and property). These rights are derived from natural law, which humans can understand through their rational capacities.
- What does it mean to say that natural law theory is grounded in claims about the essence of human nature?
Saying that natural law theory is grounded in claims about the essence of human nature means that the theory believes humans have a specific nature that can be understood through reason. This nature dictates what is inherently good for humans and forms the foundation of moral laws. For example, basic rights like the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are considered intrinsic to human nature, and moral principles are derived from these essential human traits.
- What two things characterize human beings in their natural state, according to Locke?
According to Locke, two things characterize human beings in their natural state:
State of Equality: All individuals are naturally in a state of equality, where no one has power over another without their consent.
State of Freedom: Individuals are free to act and make decisions as long as their actions do not harm others’ life, liberty, or property.
