Midterm #2: Q1-21 Flashcards
What is social inequality according to Karl Marx and what are its roots?
He saw social inequality as built-in feature of capitalism, rooted in the economic divide of society into economic classes; w/ this, inequality came from the unbalanced and unequal ownership of the means of production: the ruling class (bourgeoise) were the ones that owned and ran factories, land, and capital, while the the working class (proletariat) were the ppl that sold their labour to the ruling class to make money. This usually lead to the working class being exploited by ruling class as a way to gain more profit for their own interests.
What is the difference between the class in itself and class for itself?
- “Class in itself” refers to organization of people with a common relation to the means of production (ex/ workers/proletariat)
-“Class for itself” refers to group of ppl organized to strive for the pursuit of their own interest (union workers advocating for better working conditions)
What is social inequality according to Max Weber and what are its roots?
Weber looked at it through the lens of how power is distributed in society and how it drives human behavior; he agreed w/ Marx about economic power being important, but also argued that there are other non-economic factors that also influence how power is distributed in society
Max Weber understood social status as what? What about parties and classes?
Class - he understood it as power in the economic order; classes are based on the property they owned and services they offered; the 4 distinct classes are: large capitalists, small capitalists, specialists(sell their marketable skills & training to capitalists), and other working classes
Social status - understood as power in the social order; status is distinguished by the the level of social honour or prestige someone has that’s expressed through interaction and could have positive of negative effects based on the level (high=positive effects, low=negative effects)
Parties - any organization that wants to use power communally to achieve a certain goal; this includes not only political parties, but also groups aimed at solving or improving specific problems (ex/ environmental groups, sporting & recreational groups, feminist groups, etc)
Who is Antonio Gramsci?
He was an Italian Marxist philosopher and founding member of the communist party. He’s known best for his theories on cultural hegemony, which expanded on Marx’s ideas because it emphasized the role of ideology, culture, and intellectuals in maintaining the dominance of the ruling class
What does hegemony mean and what is an example of counter-hegemonic practices?
-It’s the maintenance of leadership or dominance of one higher social group over other lower ones; in context of Marx’s ideas, the ruling class are the group having leadership or dominance over a lower group, which is the working class, and they push out ideas (meritocracy, individualism) to maintain their power in order to make the unequal system seem normal to the lower working class through education, media, etc.
-Counter-hegemony practices - practices by the working class that work to fight against leadership maintenance of the ruling class
(ex/ Civil rights movement - challenged racial segregation and the dominant ideology of white supremacy, Workers unions, feminist movements, etc)
How does ideology play a role in:
Karl Marx’s theory of social inequalities? What about Antonio Gramsci’s theory?
W/ Karl Marx’s theory, ideology is used a tool for the ruling class to justify the system and maintain their position of power in society; ideologies (meritocracy, individualism) are used to spread to distort the working class’s understanding of the system, so they think it’s fair
W/ Antonio Gramsci’s theory, it expands on those ideas of Marx, but also emphasizes on how these ideologies are maintained through institutions like the media, education, religion, etc.
What is class consciousness? How does one achieve it?
It refers to ppl’s beliefs about their social class and class interests; it’s the awareness of what’s in the best interest for one’s class
-It is achieved when one develops a ‘class for itself’ mentality and starts putting their class first in terms of own interests and rights, rather than through means of production
What is false consciousness? What factors create false consciousness?
This is a twisted understanding of one’s social position, making the oppressed class (the proletariat) unable to recognize their oppression, so therefore, they don’t act against it
-The factors that create it tend to be the ideas that the ruling class promotes (meritocracy, individualism) that justifies the unequal system (and only really benefits them), making it seem normal and natural to the working class and therefore hindering their motivation to fight against it. and this can be pushed through education systems, media & propaganda, etc.
What does ascribed status mean? Provide an example
Status that is gained based on ascribed characteristics, meaning features an individual is born w/
(ex/ White ppl have had more social prestige and respect in society due to being born with features that make them identify as the race of ‘white’ (fair skin, pointy nose, thin hair, colored eyes, having overall European descent)
What is an achievement-based stratification system? Provide an example
System in which one’s rank or status in society is based on what they’ve achieved
-(ex/ Someone who has a PHD in a profession would be considered of high status because they’ve achieved not only a high school diploma, but also the highest form of a degree to earn postgraduation from a post-secondary institution)
-the extent to which a society is achievement or ascribed-based depends on the level of social mobility in a society
What are the two types of mobility?
Intergenerational mobility - occurs between diff generations (ex/ from parent to child)
Intragenerational mobility - occurs within a single generation
What is poverty? What kinds of poverty are there?
It’s a state in which resources (material or cultural) are lacking, and its obviously a huge problem that affects many ppl in society
-Kinds of poverty:
-Relative poverty - Ppl that lack the minimum of income or resources needed to maintain avg standard of living; measures poverty in relation to what’s considered “normal” in a specific community or country
-Absolute poverty - ppl who don’t have the basic necessities like food, water, and shelter; this one is more life-threatening
What is the cycle of poverty?
It’s the cycle that shows how poverty perpetuates itself and will likely continue unless there’s outside intervention; factors affecting it include having little or no income, lack of sufficient housing, little education, little social connection, and poor health
How do services such as bank contribute to poverty? What are other examples of institutions and practices that may keep poor people poor?
- A lots of banks require minimum balances, or they charge overdraft (when you withdraw more than what’s in ur account), maintenance, and transactional fees, and this especially affects low-income ppl
-Ppl who have lower or no credit scores (usually poor ppl) have a harder time qualifying for loans or mortgages
-Another institution that also keeps poor ppl poor is the criminal justice system; poor ppl are more likely to receive fines which they can’t afford, and it leads to further penalties or jail time
-Another is the healthcare institution; in places that don’t have free healthcare, your doctor’s appointment will cost a lot that they can’t pay for, so they go into medical debt
How do people in poverty stay stuck in the cycle of poverty?
Because a lot of institutions in society create structural barriers that prevent people from escaping the cycle
What is neoliberalism?
It’s an economic and political approach that emphasizes free markets, limited gov’t intervention, and individual responsibility. It promotes policies like privatization (transferring previously gov’t owned public services/industries to private businesses), removing trade barriers, and flexibility of labor practices
How does neoliberalism interpret:
Cultural practices? Economic and financial organization of society? Social and public policies?
Cultural practices - through neoliberalism, it’s seen as something that can be commodified for a profit and it’s the individual’s responsibility to market and promote it in order to achieve success, rather than relying on others or the state
Economical and financial organization - in neoliberalism, it’s believed that free markets are the best way to distribute resources, set prices and increase innovation; supply and demand should determine economic activity w/ out gov’t intervention
- It also promotes privatization of public services/industries, meaning they transfer these previously owned gov’t services to private businesses to increase economic growth and cut spending
-Also encourages free trade and globalization; it believes removing trade barriers and tariffs will cut spending and increase economic growth
Social and public policies - neoliberalism interprets this as, rather than providing for these services, promotes markets and competition; it also looks at it through the lens of individualism and depending on oneself for well-being so it cuts social programs like welfare, and promotes the idea of saving for retirement, rather relying on pension plans from the state
What are the 3 types of paradoxes of neoliberalism?
Morality - neoliberalism pushes the idea that a lot of the decisions and idea of the approach is made from an amoral and rational standpoint to promote economic growth, however a closer look reveals a clear operation from a conservative moral agenda
Risk - the idea of neoliberalism depoliticizes taking risk for personal advancement, but at the same time, heavily politicizes national security under the regime of fear
Poverty - the poor population of ppl are left in ruins under neoliberalism by mass incarceration, lack of resources, reduction of wage & benefits, but there’s a big encouragement of volunteerism as a way to solve/manage those poverty problems; through the rights provided by the volunteerism, they are meant to use it to then fight for the right to the resources and start thinking in a more neo liberalistic manner
What is the relationship between neoliberalism and poverty and criminalization? Be able to explain with an example
Neoliberalism, poverty, and criminalization are all connected because the neoliberal policies cut social welfare programs and put more reliance on market-driven solutions, which leads to greater economic inequality. So, as poverty increases the gov’t would probably respond by criminalizing poverty-related behaviors instead of addressing what’s causing it
ex/ During the 1980s and 90s, neoliberal policies in the U.S. led to cuts in social welfare programs but also increased policing and incarceration rates; The War on Drugs policy unfairly targeted low-income and minority communities and criminalized drug use instead of treating it as a public health issues. At the same time the private prison industries benefited from tougher sentencing laws, which filled prisons w/ non-violent, poverty and addiction-suffering ppl
How do neoliberalism and law work in tandem to disproportionally pathologize certain groups of people?
They work together to pathologize certain groups (especially minorities, poor, and marginalized ppl) by viewing their economic and social struggles as personal failures rather than blaming the system; and as a way to deal w/ their issues they criminalize their poverty behaviors (ex/ anti-loitering laws)
How do neoliberal states approach welfare fraud vs corporate fraud?
- Because neoliberalism looks at welfare-dependent individuals as personally failing and as lazy, they are more strict with the way they handle frauds committed by them: the penalties usually result in jail time, loss of benefits, stricter monitoring
- Corporate frauds on the other hand, are treated a lot more lightly despite the larger financial impact it usually has in order to maintain a pro-business environment; so the consequences are typically just fines but rarely ever any jail time, and neoliberal states may intervene through bailouts
