Midterm #2 Prep Flashcards
What is social learning theory?
- Highlights the role of “socialization agents” in transmitting attitudes, norms, motivations, and behaviours
- The recipient then models the behaviour
- Gender identity is learned by exposure
What is biological determinism (essentialism)?
Researchers believe that there are biological differencs between male and females
What is the difference between gender socialization and gender ideologies?
Gender socialization: process of learning the social expectations, attitudes, and beliefs associated with the sex one is assigned at birth
Gender ideologies: socially constructed “cultural logics” shaping “appropriate” or expected gender behaviour
What are the tenets of the binary classification model?
- Sports rest on ideas that reinforce a male-female difference
- People in make category are fundamentally different from those in the female category
- Each category has different expectations for how each person should behave in that category
What belief is the binary model based in?
That heterosexuality is the norm and that it is natural
Why is gender ideology culture specific?
Because ideas about gender are socially constructed
What does sport and gender ideology convey?
1) Celebrates masculinity
2) Girls and women as “invaders”
What were the findings of the study by Schmalz and Kerstetter (2006)?
- Majority of girls and boys agreed on what feminine and masculine sports were
- They felt that people get judged for participating in an “inappropriate sport”
- More girls participated in masculine sports, than boys in feminine sports
What are examples of gender socialization through sports?
- Womens sports recieve less coverage
- Imbalance of teh number of photos featuring male and female photos in sports illustrated kids
- More boys in team sport photos, more girls in individual sport photos
What were the consequences of sexualized images of women athletes?
- Athletic images elicited comments about skill and athleticism
- Sexualized images elicited comments about physical attractiveness, and devaled female athleticism
What are examples of sex-specific sports rules?
- “Womens tees” in golf
- Gymnastics
- Rules for women hockey (Body contact and equipment)
What do rules around womens clothing in sport (i.e. beach handball) say about societal norms and gender ideology?
Women athletes must perform without renouncing their femininity
Who influences the choices on womens uniforms?
- international regulations
- equipment manufacturers
- sponsors influence
- social norms or ideologies
What is a potential message sex segregation in sport might convey?
Women athletes need special accomodations because they are weak or un-athletic
What were some mixed gender events at the 2024 olympics?
4x100 mixed relay
mixed relay in triathlon
Equestrian
What is the usual justification for sex segregation in sport?
It is for safety and fairness for women, who are not as big and strong
What are the cons of a co-ed team?
Emphasize gender asymmetries and may reinforce gender ideologies with having allowences for women on the team
What is a different way to classify sports?
Classification by functional abilities (like Parasport
What did Suzanne Leglen do?
Refused to wear a corset to play tennis
Called indecent by the british press
What has the media said about Serena Williams?
Scrutiny about her behaviour and her body
- said not to fit into feminine norms
- Presence in traditionally white sport
- Crip walk at 2012 london olympics seen as disrespetful
- Catsuit called disrespectful
What is the athletic-feminine identity pardox?
Women athletes’ strength seen as a trade off with heteronormative femininity
Concerns with uniforms: concerns about performance versus the desire to project femininity
How is womens sport trivialized?
Errors are attributed to emotions or nervousness
Names are marked as womens sports (NBA and WNBA)
How many tweets from sports media involved female athletes?
3%
How many images on instagram from sports media involved female athletes? How many of men?
4% of women msot shown in passive poses
80% of men shown in athletic poses
What are key concerns concerning owmens athletes and the media?
- Role of agency or self-determination in self-presentation via social media
- Will women athletes challenge the stereotypical portrayals perpetuated by mass media over decades?
- Are “self-objectification” or “self-sexualization” occuring?
What is a trend appearing in self-representation and branding for female athletes?
Content reveals more of their private lives (as opposed to athletic identity) had more engagement
What advantages do more attractive male and female athletes supposedly have?
Competing for likes and views against other athletes
Aware that sex appeal attracts sponsors
How do male athletes see using erotic images in self-promotion?
- See it as emasculating
- Fear of recieving homopholic responses
How do female athletes see using erotic images in self-promotion?
- Feel pressure to use these images to appear more feminine
- Avoid assumptions that they are gay/lesbian
What are the main points of Toronto’s muslim women’s sports leagues?
- Focus on sisterhood and mutal support
- No profranity or trash talk
- Club in high demand, but challenges finding female refs and female onlt facilities
Who is Bilqis Abdul-Qaadir?
- played NCAA div 1 basketball, but couldn’t play professionally overseas becasue of the FIBA rules on headwear
- started the campaign “muslim girls hoop too”
Who is Gulamhusein and what is her experience with ringette?
- Played in ringette and contested cultural norms by expanding the bounderies of gender and sport participation
- The leagues build pride in identity, allow for cultural continuity ans wellness
What does willingfulness mean?
Stubborn refusal, resistance, taking a stand, she refuses to minimize herself and her presence on the ice, moments of strategic resistance and compliance
What are barriers to physical activity for muslim women?
Lack of appropriate facilities
Stereotyping or discrimination re: hijab
Intersectionality
What are strong perdictors of positive attitudes towards physical activity?
Support from family and friends
How does wearing a hijab affects a muslims women participation in sport?
- Decreases options
- Discomfort and unwanted attention
- Hot if exercising outside
What are the takeaways from muslim women in sport?
- There are positive attitudes surrounding sport, but religion takes precedent
- Physical activity can be a space of belonging in woman only spaces.
- Muslim woman being able to self-identify their needs was the most important factor
What are qualities in “The man box”?
Be heterosexual
Be a protector
Display aggression and dominance
Don’t cry or openly express emotions
Don’t show weakness or fear
Demonstrate power and control
View woman as property or objects
What is hegemonic masculinity?
A paticular vision of masculinity based on aggression, violence, and emotional stoicism
Seen as natural or obvious
Who is the professor who is one of the founders on the social construction of masculinity?
R.W Connell
What is cultural hegemony?
It is the idea that the dominant ideology of society reflects that of the ruiling class
How is cultural hegemony not only a theory about power?
It’s how individuals and groups who have power in society exert moral and intelletual leadership to establish their ideological systems as “common sense”
What is the hierarchy of masculinity?
Creation and maintenence of idealized form of masculinity
Based on devaluation of:
- alternate ways of being a man
- traits percived as feminine
Legitamizes men’s position in society and provides ideological justification
What are the different levels of hegemonic masculinity?
hegemonic masculinity
Complicit masculinity
Marginalized masculinity
Subordinate masculinity
What are the key points of hegemonic masculinity?
- Able-bodied, heterosexual, middle or upper class, usually white
- Assertive or agressive, competent, strong
- Breadwinner
What are the key points of complicit masculinity?
- Admires characteristics of hegemonic masculinity
- Passive beneficiary; does not challenge hegemony
What are the key points of marginalized masculinity?
- Cannot fit into hegemonic masculinity category because of certain characteristics like age, race or disability
- Subscribes to hegemonic masculine norms
What are the key points of subordinate masculinity?
- Qualities opposite to those of hegemonic masculinity
- Gay or bisexual men or so-called effeminate men
- Very expressive, may show weakness
What are high status boys?
- Athletic and earn societal prestige and resources for themselves
- More leeway to temporarily transgress rigid gender norms than lower-status boys
What purpose did physical activity serve in the Victorian era?
To masculinize young men during the migration from countryside to city life
What is muscular christianity (1800s - early 1900s)?
- Cultural movement: physical strength linked to moral strength
- Important factor in sport and colonization across British Empire
What are traits associated with sport and masculinity in history?
- Combativeness
- Strength
- Competitiveness
- Patriotism
What were beliefs surrounding appropriativeness for certain types of sports and different forms of masculinity?
Types of sports:
Violent sports to build manlieness
Forms of masculinity:
Male athletes atop hierarchy of masculinities
Why were boys supposidly in crisis during the early to mid 1900s?
- Men worked factory and office jobs (Soft jobs)
- Boys were primairly socialized by women through their roles as teachers and mothers
What did boy scouts do for young boys?
Character building
Urbanization removing the character building activites for boys
When was a social upheaval for boyhood?
The great depression - WWII
What were sporting activities used for at the time of social upheaval?
Thought to act as training grounds for masculine behaviors and the corporate world
Male socialization for leadership roles (via team sports)
How was the death of a mens hockey player in 1905 justified?
Lawyer said that “ a manly nation requires manly games”
Violence was essential to male sports during this time (circa 1905)
What were gender roles like during the war?
- Women took on more masculine roles in the public sphere, which included occupations and sports
- The public was assured that women would return to their traditional roles
What were gender roles like post war?
- There was a strong return to traditionla gender norms, low participation in sport fro women
- Sports re-emerged as a vehicle to prepare boys for the assumed roles as leaders
What was leading to the pressure of more muscular physiques in the 1970s?
Toy action figures
