Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Bisc 205 > Midterm 2- Animal Physioloigy > Flashcards

Midterm 2- Animal Physioloigy Flashcards

1
Q

Four themes of Physiology

A

1.Physiological processes obey physical and
chemical laws
2. Physiological processes are shaped by
evolution
3. Physiological processes are usually
regulated
4. Physiology is integrative

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Traits of animals

A
  1. Multicellularity, with cells that Lack cell wall and Have an extensive extracellular matrix
  2. Heterotrophy-They obtain necessary carbon compounds from other organisms
  3. Motility- They move under their own power at some point in their life cycle
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Anatomy

A

refers to an organism’s physical structure or form

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Physiology

A

the study of how the physical structures in an organism function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Adaptation

A

a genetic change in a population in response to
natural selection exerted by the environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Acclimatization

A

a phenotypic change that occurs in an individual
in response to environmental fluctuations

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Homeostasis

A

as stability in chemical and physical
conditions within an organism’s cells, tissues, and organs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Two response mechanisms that help to maintain homeostasis

A

1)Regulate-Control the body to counteract the effect of the environment
2)Conform-Change the conditions of the body to match the environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Set Point

A

a normal or target value for that
variable

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Three parts of a homeostatic enviroment

A
  1. A sensor-structure that senses some aspect of the external or internal environment
  2. An integrator-evaluates the incoming sensory information by comparing it to the set point and determining whether a response is necessary
  3. An effector-any structure that helps restore the internal condition being monitored
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Negative Feedback

A

effectors reduce or oppose the direction of change in internal conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Three features of a negative feed back loop

A
  1. Redundancy-Multiple mechanisms are in place to solve a change in state
  2. Antagonistic pairs-A set of systems that work to do opposite activities which regulate the same system
  3. Continuous feedback
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Tissue

A

a group of similar cells that work together as a unit to perform the same function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Four types of tissue

A

1)Connective
2)Nervous
3)Muscle
4)Epithelial

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Connective tissue

A

Consists of cells loosely arranged in a liquid, jellylike, or solid matrix that holds things together

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Four types of connective tissue

A

1)Loose connective tissue
2)Dense Connective tissue
3)Supporting connective tissue
4)Fluid connective tissue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Loose connective tissue

A

contains an array of fibrous proteins in a soft
matrix that hold things together loosely such as fat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Dense connective tissue

A

contains a matrix dominated by tough collagen
fibers that are secreted by fibroblasts and holds the body together tightly including ligaments and tendons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Supporting connective tissue

A

has a firm extracellular matrix that functions and support and protection includes bones and cartilage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Fluid connective tissue

A

cells surrounded by a liquid extracellular matrix functions as transport and and includes things like blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Nervous tissue

A

Transmit electrical signals by changes in permeability of the cell’s plasma membrane to ions (action potentials)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Components of Neurons

A

1)dendrites, which transmit electrical signals
from adjacent cells to the neuronal cell body
2)axons, which carry electrical signals from the cell body to other cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Muscle tissue

A

functions in movement-related physiological activities

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Skeletal muscles

A

attaches to bones and exerts force on them when it contracts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Cardiac muscles

A

makes up the walls of the heart and is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body,under involuntary control

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Smooth muscle

A

lines the walls of the digestive tract and blood vessels controlling movement through those systems

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Three types of Muscle tissue

A

1)Cardiac
2)Skeletal
3)Smooth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What muscle type is this

A

Smooth

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What muscle type is this

A

Skeletal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What muscle type is this

A

cardiac

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Epithelial tissue

A

tissues that cover the outside of the body, line the surfaces of organs, and form glands

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Gland

A

a group of cells that secrete specific molecules or solutions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Epithelia

A

provide protection and act as “gatekeepers” for the selective movement of water and nutrients across their inner and outer surface

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Organ

A

a structure that serves a specialized function and consists of several tissues

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Layers of Epithelial

A

Apical-faces away from other tissue
Basal-faces the interior of the animal
Basal lamina-Connects epithelial to other tissues

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Organ system

A

consist of groups of tissues and organs that work together to perform one or more functions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Metabolic rate

A

overall rate of energy consumption

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

basal metabolic rate

A

the rate at which an animal consumes
oxygen while at rest with an empty stomach, under normal temperature and
moisture conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Methods to increase the surface area to metabolic ratio

A

1)Flattening-use of sheet like structure ex.gills
2)Folding-Surface is folded many times to increase surface area ex.villi
3)Branching-structure is broken into many smaller structures ex. capillaries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

endotherm

A

produces adequate heat to warm its own tissue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Ectotherm

A

relies on heat gained from the environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Homeotherms

A

keep their body temperature constant

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Poikilotherms

A

allow their body temperature to change depending on environmental conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Torpor

A

a temporary drop in body temperature

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Conduction

A

the direct transfer of heat between two physical bodies that are in contact with each other

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Radiation

A

the transfer of heat between two bodies that are not in direct physical contact

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Evaporation

A

the phase exchange that occurs when liquid water becomes a gas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Thermal conductivity

A

Conduction is the direct transfer of
heat between two physical bodies
that are in contact with each other

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Convection

A

Transfer of thermal energy between an object and an external medium that is moving

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Insulation

A

Layer of air/water/tissue which decreases heat loss Ex.Blubber,Hair,Feathers,Air, Water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Allen’s rule

A

Species found in
cold climates display shorter limbs
and appendages than species
located in warm environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Bermans rule

A

Species with larger body sizes are found in
colder climates, whereas smaller
body-sized species are located in
warm areas

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

What does this depict, describe an example

A

Counter current flow, the tongue of a blue whale has this method to help conserve heat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

What does this depict

A

Concurrent flow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Traits of animals

A

-Lack cell walls
-Have an extensive extracellular matrix
-They obtain necessary carbon compounds from other organisms
-Most ingest their food rather than absorbing it
-They move under their own power at some point in their life cycle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

4 requirements for all cells

A

1.Proteins—perform most of the cell’s functions
2. Nucleic acids—store, transmit, and process information
3. Carbohydrates—provide chemical energy, carbon, support, and identity
4. Plasma membrane—serves as a selectively permeable membrane barrier

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

Why is it beneficial to compartmentalize the cell?

A
  1. Separation of incompatible chemical reactions
  2. Increasing the efficiency of chemical reactions
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Nucleous

A

Region of the nucleus that is responsible for synthesizing ribosomal RNA and assembling ribosomal sub units

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Functions of the nucleus

A

-Contains the cell’s chromosomes
– Each chromosome occupies a distinct area
– Densely packed sections of DNA at the periphery
– Loosely packed sections of DNA toward the interior

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Synthesizes proteins that will be Shipped to another organelle, Inserted into the plasma
membrane and Secreted to the cell exterior such as messenger proteins,transports/pumps, or catalyzing reactions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Contains enzymes that catalyze
reactions involving lipids, Synthesize lipids needed by the organism, Break down lipids and other molecules that are poisonous
and act as a reservoir for Ca2+ ions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Is formed by a series of stacked,
flat, membranous sacs called
cisternae with a cis side facing the nucleas and a trans side facing the cytoplasm whos main function is to Processes, sorts, and ships
proteins synthesized in the rough
ER

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Cis side of golgi

A

surface closest to the nucleus that receives products from the rough ER

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Trans side of the golgi

A

Surfaceoriented to plasma membrane, main job is to ship products of the rough ER out to other
organelles or the cell surface

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

Lysosomes

A

are recycling centres found only in animal
cells that Digest macromolecules and
export monomers to the cytosol

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

three lysosomes recycling pathways

A

1)Receptor mediated endocytosis-a process by which cells absorb metabolites, hormones, proteins – and in some cases viruses – by the inward budding of the plasma membrane
2)Phagocytosis-process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles
3)Autophagy damaged organelle is engulfed by lysosome and digested releasing monomers into cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Peroxisome

A

– Centre of redox reactions
– Liver cell peroxisomes contain enzymes
that oxidize the ethanol in alcoholic
beverages
– Involved in detoxifying reactive
molecules

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Mitochondria

A

Supply the cell with ATP and are composed of The inner one is folded into a
series of sac-like cristae and The solution inside the inner membrane mitochondrial matrix

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

Functions of cytoskeleton

A

– Structural stability
– Cell division
– Cell motility
– Maintaining/changing cell shape
– Transports materials within the cell
– Organizes the organelles and other cellular structures into a cohesive
whole

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

Three types of cytoskeletal elements

A

1.Actin filaments (microfilaments)
2.Intermediate filaments
3.Microtubules

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Actin Filaments

A

The smallest cytoskeleton component formed by two strands of actin twisted around one another with a fast growing plus end and slow growing minus end these filaments help define the shape of the cell as well as mediate movement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

Cell crawling

A

occurs via actin filaments growing in one direction, which causes the cell to move

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

Intermediate Filaments

A

Are defined by size rather
than composition as Many types exist, each
consisting of a different
protein, their main function is to provide structural support to the cell

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

Microtubules

A

the largest cytoskeletal elements that are composed of hallow tubes of tubulin which grow along they plus end. They provide the tracks along which vesicles move and separate chromosomes as well as provide cell stability

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

kinesin

A

Uses ATP to do mechanical
work allowing it to “walk” along a microtubules through a series of conformational changes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

Where is this? How can you tell?

A

Testis, it generates a lot of lipids which you can tell from the over abundance of smooth er

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

Where is this? How can you tell?

A

Animal pancreas,responsible for digesting so lots of lysosomes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

Where is this? How can you tell?

A

Cardiac muscles, uses a lot of atp so lots of mitochondria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

plasma membrane

A

It’s function is to create an environment inside the cell which is different from conditions outside

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

Extra cellular matrix

A

Composed of a fibrous component(mostly collagen) which forms a flexible extracellular layer and a ground substance is made of proteoglycans that attracts water and forms a gel

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

Three types of structures involved in holding animal cells together

A

-Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
-Gap junctions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

What is this, what is its function

A

Tight junction, seals the cell together with stitches that provide a watertight seal found primary in epithelial cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

What is this, what is its function

A

Desmosomes, connects the cytoskeleton of cells, Resist pulling and shearing forces and are found in epithelial and muscle tissue

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

What is this, what is its function

A

Gap junction, act as a channel between cells allow the flow of small molecules between cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

Importance of direct connection between cells

A

-Ions and small molecules can pass between cells
– May regulate gene expression
– May activate on inactivate proteins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

5 categories of chemical signals

A
  1. Autocrine signals
  2. Paracrine signals
  3. Endocrine signals
  4. Neural signals
  5. Neuroendocrine signals
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

Autocrine signals

A

affect the same cell that releases them such as cytokins which amplify the response of a cell to a stimulus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

Paracrine signals

A

diffuse locally and act on target cells near the source cell such as insulin and glucagon inside of the liver

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

Endocrine

A

signals are carried to distant cells by blood or other body fluids produced by a gland

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

Neural signals

A

diffuse a short distance from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell, where they bind to a membrane receptor and result in
a change in the membrane potential, very fast because action potentials propagate
rapidly and have only a short distance to diffuse across the synaptic cleft

91
Q

Neuroendocrine

A

signals are released from neurons but are
considered hormones because they are carried by blood or other body fluids and act on distant cells an example being anitdeuretic hormone which is produced in the hypothamus but must travel to the kidneys

92
Q

two methods for a cell to respond to an incoming chemical signal

A

1)A change in which genes are being expressed in the target cell
2)A change in the activation or deactivation of a particular target protein that
already exists in the cell

93
Q

Hormones

A

information-carrying molecules that are secreted from a cell which circulates in the body
acting on target cells far from the signalling cell, these molecules act as integrators in maintaing homeostasis

94
Q

Animal hormone types

A

1)Peptides and polypeptides, chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
2) Amino acid derivatives
3) Steroids, which are a family of lipids distinguished by a four-ring structure

95
Q

signal receptor molecules in response to hormone signals

A

Change shape and activity after binding to a hormone but only cells with appropriate signal receptors will respond to a particular
signalling molecule

96
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones

A

Hormones capable of diffusing across the plasma membrane, they bind to receptors are in the target cells’ cytoplasm where they trigger change in the cell’s activity directly

97
Q

Lipid insoluble hormones

A

Large hormones which cannot cross the plasma
membrane, they bind to receptors on the cell’s plasma membrane

98
Q

The hormone–receptor complex

A

Proteins that hormones. Once bound, the hormone/receptor complex initiates a cascade of cellular effects resulting in some modification of physiology and/or behaviour via alteration of gene expression

99
Q

Membrane receptors

A

Bind to lipid insoluble hormones and converts the extracellular signal into a intracellular signal via signal transduction

100
Q

Two methods for signal transduction

A

1)The signal may be amplified ,signalling molecule activate several downstream molecules increasing the signal strength
2)Signal is diversified, the single signal can lead to several changes in the cell

101
Q

G proteins

A

trigger production of a second messenger after being activated by a signal receptor

102
Q

G-Protien coupled signalling

A
  1. A signalling molecule binds to its membrane receptor
  2. The associated G protein exchanges GDP for GTP Spliting the signal into two parts
  3. The active G protein subunit activates a nearby membrane enzyme that catalyzes the production of a second messenger
103
Q

Secondary messengers

A

Small molecules that can be produced rapidly and diffuse quickly throughout the cell which help to amplify a signal

104
Q

protein kinases

A

add a phosphate group to other proteins which can activate or deactivate them

105
Q

Enzyme-linked receptors

A

Embedded in the membrane and bind directly to a hormone and lead to the catalyzing of a reaction inside of the cell

106
Q

Ion channel receptors

A

Proteins that when activated allow ions to leave or enter a cell

107
Q

Insulin

A

a small protein hormone produced by the pancreas when blood glucose level is high

108
Q

Insulin signalling in the body

A

When fat or muscle cells are bound with insulin glucose transporters are added to the cells membrane allowing the cell in import the extra glucose

109
Q

Glucagon

A

causes glucose-storing cells in the liver to export
glucose to the blood, increasing blood glucose levels

110
Q

Effect of glucose content on the body

A

Low: Not enough fuel for the brain and body to function
High:Toxic to neurons and organ systems by decreasing the PH of the blood

111
Q

Draw a diagram for Lipid insoluble signal transduction

A
112
Q

Draw a diagram for steroid hormone action

A
113
Q

Main Functions of the plasma membrane

A

– Keep damaging materials out of the cell
– Allow entry of materials needed by the cell
– Facilitate the chemical reactions necessary for life

114
Q

Lipids

A

Carbon-containing compounds that are
Largely nonpolar and hydrophobic

115
Q

Hydrocarbons

A

Hydrophobic molecules containing only carbon and hydrogen in equal shared bonds

116
Q

fatty acid

A

a hydrocarbon chain bonded to a carboxyl (–COOH)functional group that can be saturated or unsaturated

117
Q

Three lipid types found inside cells

A

1)Fats composed of three fatty acids linked to glycerol
2)Steroids family of lipids with a distinctive four-ring structure
3)Phospholipids consist of a glycerol linked to a phosphate group and to either two chains of (isoprene or) two fatty acids

118
Q

Phospholipids

A

Glycerol linked to a polar group and two fatty acid tails, its main function is to form the bilayer of cells and is an ampiphatic molecule

119
Q

Saturated fatty acid

A

hydrocarbon chains consist
of only single bonds between the
carbons

120
Q

Unsaturated fatty acid

A

hydrocarbon chains have
one or more double bonds in the
hydrocarbon chains

121
Q

Beneficial properties of having membranes made of lipids

A

1)Flexible allowing the cell to change shape
2)Repairable, lipids always reform to create a continuous surface when damaged
3)Expandable- You can continue to add lipids to increase the cell size

122
Q

Rank the permeability of different molecules trying to pass the lipid bilayer

A

Small non polar molecules>Small uncharged polar molecules>Large uncharged polar molecules>Small ions

123
Q

Factors that influence the permeability of the phospholipid bilayer

A

–Number of double bonds between the carbons in the phospholipid’s fatty acid tail
– Length of the tail
–Number of cholesterol molecules in the membrane
–Temperature

124
Q

How does tail length influence membrane permeability

A

Hydrophobic interactions become stronger as saturated hydrocarbon tails increase in
length

125
Q

How does number of double bonds affect membrane permeability?

A

Double bonds decrease van der whals forces meaning lipids pack together less tightly increasing the permeability

126
Q

How does adding cholesterol affect membrane permeability?

A

Adding cholesterol to membranes increases the density of the hydrophobic section decreasing permeability but increasing fluidity

127
Q

How does temperature affect membrane fluidity?

A

Membrane fluidity decreases as temperature drops because molecules in the membrane move slower,tails pack closer,and the decrease in fluidity decrease permeability

128
Q

homeoviscous adaptation

A

Ability to maintain membrane fluidity in low temperatures via the following mechanisms
1)Decrease fatty acid chain length
2)Decreassed sautration of tails
3)Increase cholesterol
4)phosphatidylethanolamine instead of phosphatidylcholine

129
Q

Passive transport

A

substances diffuse across a
membrane in the absence of an outside energy source consisting of diffusion and facilitated diffusion

130
Q

integral membrane proteins

A

Protiens which embed through the membrane, they have a hydrophobic exterior to slot into the membrane

131
Q

Peripheral membrane proteins

A

Found on either the interior or exterior surface of the membrane they sit in the bilayer but do not pass it

132
Q

fluid-mosaic model

A

The membrane is a fluid, dynamic mosaic of
phospholipids and proteins

133
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

The selective process of passive movement of molecules along the concentration gradient

134
Q

Channel protein

A

form pores that selectively admit certain ions like aquaporins

135
Q

Carrier Protein

A

undergo a conformational change to transport
specific molecules across the
membrane like GLUT-1 for glucose transport

136
Q

Gated channels

A

Channels that open or close in response to a signal either in the form of a bonded protein or an electric signal

137
Q

Active transport

A

Moves substances against their gradient and requires an input of energy like ATP

138
Q

Pumps

A

membrane proteins
that provide active transport of
molecules across the membrane

139
Q

Sodium potassium pump mechanism

A

1)3 Sodium binds to the active site
2)ATP is consumed, the phosphate group cause a conformational change in the pump which releases the sodium across the membrane
3)2 Potassium binds to the changed active site
4)Phosphate is cleaved and the pump returns to it’s native state bringing the potassium across the membrane

140
Q

Secondary active transport

A

utilises an existing gradient of one
molecule to power the transport of another

141
Q

Symporters

A

transport solutes against a
concentration gradient, using the energy
released when another solute moves in
the same direction along its
electrochemical gradient

142
Q

Antiporters

A

actively transported solute moves in the
opposite direction

143
Q

coupled transporter

A

membrane proteins use the gradient of ions to power the movement of glucose, atp is consumed in creating the gradient but not in transporting the molecules through the membrane

144
Q

Ion channels

A

specialized membrane proteins that form pores, or openings, in a membrane which facilitate the diffusion of ions

145
Q

Electrochemical gradients

A

occur when ions build up on one side of a
plasma membrane establishing an electro chemical gradient onto which ions can diffuse down

146
Q

Two types of nervous system

A

1)Nerve nets where nerve cells are diffused around the organism
2) Central nervous system which includes large numbers of neurons aggregated into
clusters called ganglia

147
Q

Interneurons

A

enabling communication between sensory or motor neurons and the central nervous system

148
Q

Motor neurons

A

send signals to effector cells in glands or muscles

149
Q

Three components of the nerve cell

A
  1. Cell body, or soma.
  2. Dendrites
  3. Axons
150
Q

membrane potential

A

a separation of charge immediately adjacent to the plasma membrane

151
Q

resting potential

A

The negatively charged baseline for the neuron when not sending/ receiving signals

152
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

combination of an electric gradient and a concentration gradient

153
Q

Ion gradient of neurons

A

Inside cell: Low Na+ and Cl− , High K+ and some organic
anions
Outside: High Na+ and Cl− predominate

154
Q

Roll of potassium channels in maintaining the resting potential

A

K+ wants to diffuse outside of the cell through its channels, at equillibrium this cuases the inside of the cell to have a net negative charge

155
Q

Nernst equation

A

Equation which helps to calculate the membrane potential at equillbrium it is calculated via the following formula

156
Q

The Goldman equation

A

Equation which calculates membrane potential accounting for multiple ions and their permeabilities

157
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

-65 mV

158
Q

Equilibrium potential for Na+

A

+60 mV

159
Q

Equilibrium potential for K+

A

-90 mV

160
Q

What happens to membrane potential as permeability for that ion increases?

A

Membrane potential moves towards the equilibrium value of the ion whose permeability has been increase

161
Q

action potential

A

a rapid, temporary change in a membrane
potential. Occurring in three phases 1)Depolarization 2)Re polarization 3)Hyperpolarization

162
Q

Depolarization

A

the phase in
which the membrane becomes less
negative and moves toward a
positive charge triggered by movement of Na+ ions

163
Q

repolarization

A

changes the membrane back to a negative
charge, it is triggered by the closing of certain ion channels and the opening of other ion
channels in the membrane

164
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

when the membrane becomes more negative
than it was during the resting
potential

165
Q

threshold potential

A

the change in potential from -65 to -55 which is what cause a signal to be sent. Any lower than -55 and the signal will not be sent and depolarization will not continue

166
Q

relative refractory period

A

After a signal has been sent the neuron becomes hyperpolarized or below the regular threshold meaning more stimuli is needed to re excite the neuron to fire again

167
Q

Voltage clamping

A

technique which allows researchers to hold an axon at any voltage and record the electrical currents that occur

168
Q

Patch clamping

A

a form of voltage clamp that allows the isolation and measurement of electric activity of of a single ion channel

169
Q

Describe the conditions of this phase

A

Na and K channels are closed
K+ permeability dominates

170
Q

Describe the conditions of this phase

A

Depolarization begins at -55
Voltage gated Na+ channels open and flood the cell

171
Q

Describe the conditions of this phase

A

Repolarization
Na+ channels inactivating and the K+ channels open allowing ions to move out of the cell

172
Q

Describe the conditions of this phase

A

Hyper polarization
Na+ channels completly closed off and K+ let excess K+ flow out causing a negative charge in the cell

173
Q

Steps in propagating action potential down an axon

A

1)The influx of Na+ at the start of an action potential repels intracellular
cations
2)As positive charges are pushed farther from the initial sodium channels,
they depolarize adjacent portions of the membrane
3)Nearby voltage-gated Na+ channels open when the adjacent membrane
reaches threshold due to displaced Na+

174
Q

Why can action potentials only propagate in one direction?

A
  1. Na+ channels inactivate after opening upstream - absolute refractory period
    2.The after-hyperpolarization phase – relative refractory period,The membrane is more negative than the resting potential - keeps the positive charges that spread upstream from triggering an action potential
175
Q

Axon diameter and speed

A

Cations meet less resistance in axons with large diameters than those in narrow axons as a result, the charge spreads along the membrane more quickly

176
Q

myelin sheath

A

acts as electrical insulation, preventing ions from leaking out across the plasma
membrane during the propagation of an action potential

177
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

breaks in the myelination where voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are clustered at these nodes

178
Q

saltatory action potential conduction

A

Action potentials “jump” from node to node down a myelinated axon by sending enough potential down the short distance to regenerate the next action potential at the nodes.

179
Q

neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messengers that
transmit information from one
neuron to another neuron,
muscle, or gland

180
Q

synaptic cleft

A

Separation between the presynaptic and post synaptic neuron which neurotransmitters travel through

181
Q

Transfer of information from pre synaptic to post synaptic neuron

A

1) Action potential arrives at the end of the axon
2)Depolarization opens voltage-gated calcium
channels located near the synapse in the plasma membrane of the presynaptic neuron, and calcium flows in down its electrochemical gradient
3)In response to the influx of calcium, synaptic vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane, then release the neurotransmitter into the
synaptic cleft by exocytosis
4)Neurotransmitters bind to
receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane, acting as a ligand—
a molecule that binds to a
specific site on a receptor protein
5)The response ends as
neurotransmitters are
removed from the synaptic
cleft.

182
Q

Fate of neurotransmitters after the signal has been sent

A

1)Diffuse away
2)Digested by enzymes
3)Taken up by the glia

183
Q

ligand-gated ion
channels

A

The ligand-gated ion channel
opens in response to the binding
of the neurotransmitter and allows
flux of ions down an
electrochemical gradient

184
Q

metabotropic receptors

A

G-protein coupled receptors that activate enzymes or ion channels that can lead to a secondary messenger capable of causing changes in genomics expression

185
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic
potential

A

Neurotransmitter action on the postsynaptic cell that causes depolarization

186
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

A

neurotransmitter action leads to postsynaptic membrane hyperpolarization

187
Q

Factors that affect EPSP/IPSP magnitude

A

– The type of NT receptor
– Amount of NT released
– How long the NT remains in the
synapse
– Density of NT receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron

188
Q

axon hillock

A

Part of the neuron which sums the EPSP and IPSP potentials and integrates them to send or not send a signal down the axon, if the depolarization is great enough a signal is fired

189
Q

Central Nervous System

A

Composed of the brain and spinal cord

190
Q

Peripheral Nervous system

A

Afferent division and Efferent division(Somatic and Autonomic(Parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems))

191
Q

Labels and Functions

A

A) Cerebrum, conscious thought and memory
B)Cerebellum, complex motor patterns
C)Brain Stem:Connects brain to spinal cord and regulates the heart,lung, digestion
D)Diencephalon:Relays sensory information to the cerebellum and controls homeostasis

192
Q

Labels and Functions

A

a)frontal lobe:important for voluntary movement, expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions
b)parietal lobe:responsible for receiving and processing sensory input
c)Temporal Lobe:helps you use your senses to understand and respond to the world around you
d) Occipital Lobe:visual processing area of the brain

193
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Region of the brain consisting that connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres allowing communication from both sides of the brain

194
Q

Broca area

A

Associated with speech production and articulation, they can form the thought but are unable to say it

195
Q

Wernicke area

A

the speaker must momentarily activate knowledge about the sequence of consonant and vowel speech sounds (phonemes) that form the word to be spoken. This mental stage prior to articulation is known as phonologic retrieval.

196
Q

Learning

A

A change in behaviour that results from a specific experience in an individuals life via changes in biochemical signalling or structural changes like synapse density

197
Q

Aplysia Siphon experiment

A

When you shock the tail and touch the siphon of a sea slug the shock causes K+ gates in the neurons to get phosphorylated and prolonging depolarization increasing the sensitivity to the stimulus

198
Q

Voluntary muscles

A

Contract in response to counscious thoughts and are stimulated by neurons in the somatic division

199
Q

Involuntary muscles

A

Contract only ins response to unconscious electrical activity and are controlled by neurons in the autonomic division

200
Q

Smooth muscle cells

A

Unbranched, lack sacromeres, unstriated, singularly nucleated, they are essential in controlling lungs,blood vessels,digestion,bladder,reproduction

201
Q

Cardiac Muscle Cells

A

Branched, Contain Sarcomeres, straited, multi nucleated, moves involuntary following spontaneous depolarization,makes up the walls of the heart and is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body as part of the
circulatory system

202
Q

Skeletal Muscle Cells

A

Unbranched, Sacromeres, Multinulceated, Striated, Exert a pulling force on the bones when contracted and are controlled only through somatic motor neurons

203
Q

3 types of muscle fiber

A

1)Slow- Slow oxidative
2)Fast- Glycolosis
3)Intermediate- Glycolosis and oxidative

204
Q

Slow Muscle Fiber

A

High myoglobin content, contracts slwoly because myosin hydrolizes ATP slowly. Uses slow oxidative process with many mitochondria in the tissue allowing for it to fatigue slowly

205
Q

Fast Muscle Fiber

A

Low myoglobin, hydrolozises atp quickly but tires quickly due to using glycolsis to power it

206
Q

Intermediate Muscle Fiber

A

High myoglobin, able to perform both glycolisis and anerobic respiration

207
Q

Parallel arrangement of muscle fibre

A

Maximizes length changes, produces a small force and pulls width wise on the muscle, found in areas like thigh and help create fast movement

208
Q

Pennate arrangement of muscle fibre

A

Fibres are organized into two flexed sheets that maximize force and pull a short length, found in muscles like the calf that are necessary for load bearing

209
Q

Skeletal Systems Functions

A

1)Protection from biological intrusions
2)Maintain posture
3)Re-extension of shortened muscles
4)Transfer of muscle forces to other parts of the body and environment

210
Q

Three types of skeletal systems

A

1)Hydrostatic skeleton; uses pressure of enclosed body fluids and soft tissue for support
2)Exoskeleton; Rigid structure outside the body attached to muscles via apodemes
3)Endoskeleton; rigid structure inside the body

211
Q

Vertebrae skeleton types

A

1)Bones:cells in a hard matrix
2)Cartilage: Cells scattered in a gelatinous matrix of polysaccharides
3)Ligaments: Bands of fibrous connective tissue that binds bones to other bones

212
Q

Tendon

A

Attach the bones to the skeletal muscles

213
Q

Types of Bone Tissue

A

1)Osteoblasts
2)Osteoclasts
3)Osteogenic cells
4)Osteocytes

214
Q

Osteoblasts

A

Bone building cells that generate protein and calcium rich extracellular matrix

215
Q

Osteoclasts

A

Bone reabsorbing cells that secrete acid onto bone tissue when calcium levels are low leaking them into blood

216
Q

Osteogenic cells

A

Undifferentiated stem cells with high mitotic activity which develop into osteoblasts

217
Q

Osteocytes

A

Calcified osteoblast, the primary cell of mature bone

218
Q

Vitamin D and its function

A

Helps us reabsorb calcium in our small intestine, can be created in our body when we are struck with enough UV light, without it causes osteoporosis and rickets

219
Q

Components of Sacromeres

A

1)Actin thin filaments
2)Myosin thick filaments
Myosin head is bound to the actin filament which catalyze the hydrolysis of ATP, the sliding of the filaments is what causes muscle contractions

220
Q

Interaction of Actin and Myosin

A

1)ATP binds to myosin head, causing a conformation change that releases the head off of the actin
2)ATP turn into ADP, myosin head neck straightens and head pivots into the cocked position
3)Phosphate is relased and head returns to original position
4) ADP is released and myosin filaments is ready for binding to another ATP molecule

221
Q

3D structure of sacromere

A

Thick filaments surrounded by 6 thin filaments

222
Q

Role of calcium in muscle contraction

A

Calcium ions initiate muscle contraction by binding to troponin helps move the tropomyosin out of the way exposing the myosin binding site on actin

223
Q

Steps in the initiation of contraction

A

1)Action potential triggers the release of acetocholine form neuron into synaptic cleft
2)ACH diffuses accross syanmtpic cleft triggering Na+ channels to open triggering depolarization
3)Action potential moves across the plasma membrane into T-Tubule
4)Sarcoplasmic reticulum interacts with action potential in T-Tubules releasing Ca2+
5)Myosin binding sites in actin are exposed allowing contraction

Bisc 205 (3 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions