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PSYC 213 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is imagery?

A

A mental picture, BUT mental imagery does not always have to be visual imagery

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2
Q

What is the dual coding theory?

A

We break down the mental representation of events into two categories: the verbal and non-verbal system
- both systems interact through referential connections

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3
Q

What is the difference between a concrete and abstract word?

A
  • Concrete: word that can be represented as both a word and an image
  • Abstract: word that tends to be represented only as a word
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4
Q

What is the propositional representation hypothesis?

A

All information is stored as descriptive statements, regardless of the content
- Imagery is a by-product

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5
Q

What is the method of loci?

A
  • Place objects in unexpected locations to remember them better; imagine yourself walking through the location, “picking up” the objects along the way
  • This makes the objects distinct, bizarre or humorous among common items
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6
Q

What is the Von Restorff effect?

A

objects are remembered better when they are bizarre among common objects

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7
Q

What is the special places strategy?

A

When you want to jeep something secure, you often think to hide that item in an unexpected place
- not as effective since there is no cue about location

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8
Q

What is mental rotation?

A

manipulating a mental image in space

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9
Q

What is synaesthesia?

A

A sensory experience in which a stimulus in one sensory modality also invokes a response in one or more other sensory modalities

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10
Q

What is chromesthesia?

A

the most common experience among synesthetes

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11
Q

What is amusia?

A

Deficits in musical abilities - also called tone-deafness

- People with amusia have been shown to have deficits in visual/spatial imagery

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12
Q

What are memory traces?

A

a physical representation in the brain

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13
Q

What is a trace?

A

When a cue completes a pattern of a stored memory

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14
Q

What is echoic memory?

A

a sound-byte held for ~ 3 seconds

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15
Q

What is haptic memory?

A

a very brief memory of a touch

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16
Q

What is iconic memory?

A

visual information held very briefly

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17
Q

What is a positive afterimage?

A

a sensory memory contains the original image

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18
Q

What is a negative afterimage?

A

A sensory memory contains the inverted colors from the original image
- Your photoreceptors become tired, so they reveal the negative colors

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19
Q

What is the phonological loop?

A

Holds sound and verbal info

  • Phonological store: passive store for verbal info
  • Articulatory loop: subvocal rehearsal of verbal information and used to convert written material into sounds (reading)
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20
Q

What is the visuospatial sketchpad?

A

Contains the:
Visual cache: holds info about visual features and identity
- Memory for patterns
- Passive
Inner scribe: holds info about spatial location and movement
- Memory for sequence movements
- Active

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21
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A

Integrates different types of info from many sources

- Explains how separate working memory systems interact

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22
Q

What is the forgetting curve?

A

A law that describes how information is forgotten over time

- Forgetting is exponential – memory loss is largest early on and slows down over time

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23
Q

What is the spacing effect?

A

memory is better when the same amount of learning is spread out over time

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24
Q

What is the primacy effect?

A

better recall of the first few items from a learned list

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25
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

better recall of the final few items

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26
Q

What is the decay theory?

A

forgetting occurs because of time

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27
Q

What is the interference theory?

A

forgetting occurs because of interfering information

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28
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

new info interferes with old info

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29
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

old info interferes with new information

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30
Q

What is generalization?

A

forgetting perceptual details of an encoded object or event allows one to apply information from that memory to new situations

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31
Q

What is shallow processing?

A

Focus on structural or physical characteristics of information during learning – examples:

  • Phoneme information: the sound
  • Grapheme level: letter, syllables
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32
Q

What is deep processing?

A

Focus on the meaning of the information during learning

- Link new with old information

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33
Q

What is state-dependent learning?

A

Memory is better when a person’s context is the same at encoding and retrieval

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34
Q

What is the self-reference effect?

A

memory is better if you relate it to yourself

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35
Q

What is the generation effect?

A

memory is better if you generate it

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36
Q

What is implicit memory?

A
  • Non-conscious and non-declarative memory

* Procedural memory and priming

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37
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Memory for well-established procedures and skills

  • Does not require conscious thought
  • Linked to habits
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38
Q

What is episodic memory?

A

remembering specific events and episodes

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39
Q

What is semantic memory?

A

facts and general information about the self and world

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40
Q

What is anoetic consciousness?

A

implicit memory, no awareness of knowing or personal engagement (no personal engagement, like tying your shoes)

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41
Q

What is noetic consciousness?

A

semantic memory, awareness of knowledge but no personal engagement (you’re not thinking about a specific episode you were involved in, like remembering your dog’s name)

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42
Q

What is autonoetic consciousness?

A

episodic memory, awareness and personal engagement (mental time travel)

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43
Q

What are memory schemas?

A

Generalizations of events and objects

- Represents commonalities from overlapping experiences

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44
Q

What is the reappearance hypothesis?

A

a single memory trace is recalled the same way at each retrieval

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45
Q

What are flashbulb memories?

A

Vivid memories of significant events

- Emotionally arousing or shocking events

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46
Q

What is the now print theory?

A

significant experiences are immediately “photocopied” and preserved in long-term memory

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47
Q

What is the misattribution effect?

A

retrieving familiar information from the wrong source

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48
Q

What is false recognition?

A

Confuse new info with memory for old information

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49
Q

What is misinformation?

A

the effect of leading questions on false memory formation

50
Q

What is spreading activation?

A

activation in a semantic network spreads from an activated concept (unit) to other semantically related or interconnected units

51
Q

What is childhood amnesia?

A

inability to recall memories form early childhood

52
Q

What is the reminiscence bump?

A

We tend to remember more events from our teenage years than any other period in life
- Extends to music

53
Q

What is the associative deficit hypothesis?

A

older adults have problems encoding and retrieving associations

54
Q

What is the difference between recollection and familiarity?

A

• Recollection (remember): recognize something and where you learned it
- Autonomic consciousness and requires associations between that something and context
• Familiarity (know): recognize something but you cannot consciously recollect anything about its actual occurrence and does not require associations
- Noetic consciousness

55
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

A

Progressive neurodegeneration (decline in structure and function of neurons) that beings in the medial temporal lobes (hippocampus)

56
Q

What is semantic dementia?

A
  • Neurodegeneration that begins in the left anterior temporal lobe, an area critical for meaning, concepts, and facts
  • Deficits present as a loss of word meaning and word finding difficulties
57
Q

What is Korsakoff’s syndrome?

A
  • Anterograde and retrograde amnesia
  • Chronic alcoholism leads to thiamine deficiency leads to damaged mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus, which are connected to the hippocampus
58
Q

What is dissociative amnesia?

A
  • A very rare psychiatric disorder that varies in presentation
  • Commonly retrograde amnesia for episodic and identity autobiographical information in response to psychological and/or physical trauma
  • A retrieval deficit, not a storage deficit
59
Q

What are concepts?

A

representations of categories and systematic grouping of instances

60
Q

What is the rule-based approach of concepts?

A

concepts are collections of necessary and sufficient features

61
Q

What is the probability-based approach of concepts?

A

concepts and categories are formed through experience

62
Q

What is Bruner’s rule-based approach?

A
  • Concepts result from logical inferences (ex: learning rules)
  • These rules describe concepts as made up of attributes
63
Q

What is a conjunctive concept?

A

an instance must hold all the attributes to make it a concept member
- Ex: a mother is defined as a female AND having a child

64
Q

What is a disjunctive concept?

A

an instance must hold only one attribute to be a concept member
- Ex: fame can be defined in different ways

65
Q

What is a rational concept?

A

an instance must have attributes relate to be a concept member
- Ex: marriage is defined by the link between two people

66
Q

What is successive scanning?

A

form a single hypothesis about the concept and test it by selecting instances until it is false

67
Q

What is simultaneous scanning?

A

start with all hypotheses about the concept and attempt to eliminate as many as possible with each instance

68
Q

What is the prototype theory?

A
  • Conceptual knowledge and categories are defined by a ‘more or less’ principle
  • Concepts are formed from experience, by the way we interact with information
69
Q

What is the typicality effect?

A

a preference for processing prototypical items compared to more obscure category members

70
Q

What is cognitive economy?

A

the balance between simplification and differentiation when categorizing and describing
- Use the fewest bits of information that would still be meaningful for the situation

71
Q

What is the embodied view of concepts?

A

• Concepts are formed as a function of the environment and goals
- We can define concepts flexibly depending on what we need to do with the info we’re accessing

72
Q

What is morphology?

A

complexity of language

73
Q

What is aphasia?

A

Impaired language function from brain injury

74
Q

What is Broca’s aphasia?

A

Intact language comprehension with impairments producing fluent speech articulatory movements
- These impairments range from deficits in generating meaningful speech (agrammatical) to generating all forms of speech depending on the amount of damage

75
Q

What is Wernicke’s aphasia?

A
  • Impairments understanding or comprehending speech with intact ability to produce speech
  • Produces random but fluent speech with a lot of non-words or inverted words
  • Patients are often unaware of their deficit
76
Q

What is conduction aphasia?

A
  • Intact speech comprehension
  • Intact speech production
  • Impaired speech repetition due to disconnection between language production and comprehension
77
Q

What are paraphasias?

A

Primary deficit of Wernicke’s aphasia - language output errors

78
Q

What is verbal paraphasia?

A

Substitutes a word with something that is semantically related

  • Shares meaning with intended word
  • Ex: swapping term brother with sister
79
Q

What is phonemic (literal) paraphasia?

A

Substitute or add speech sounds

  • Shares sounds with intended word
  • Ex: calling crab salad sad - cralad
80
Q

What are neologisms?

A

Substitute with a made-up word

- Real world example: webinar and calling shoes “feet houses”

81
Q

What are psycholinguistics?

A

• The branch of cognitive psychology interested in how we comprehend, produce, acquire, and represent language

82
Q

What is Chomsky’s view of language?

A

Language is innate

83
Q

What is the difference between linguistic competence vs performance?

A

Linguistic competence: internalized system of rules used to understand language
- Phonology, syntax, semantic…
Linguistic performance: real world output
- Dependent on competence mixed with cognitive factors (memory) and situational factors

84
Q

What is transformational grammar?

A

a theory that describes linguistic competence, how language is structured and processed by a system of formal rules

85
Q

What is finite state grammar?

A

A rule system for stringing together words that operate one word by one word in one direction
- There are a finite number of states and transitions between words

86
Q

What is the innateness hypothesis?

A

Humans are born with knowledge of language

- There is a universal grammar: a common underlying system of rules for all languages

87
Q

What is the language acquisition device?

A

an innate set of language learning tools

88
Q

What is the Nativist view of language and thought?

A

Language and thought are independent and change over development

89
Q

What is the language of thought hypothesis?

A

• The medium of thought is an innate non-spoken language called mentalese

  • Mentalese is structured to represent all conceptual content and propositions to create thought
  • Explains why children (and animals) without spoken language can still think
90
Q

What is linguistic relativity?

A

Language and thoughts are dependent

91
Q

What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?

A

languages influence our experience and perceptions

92
Q

What is linguistic determinism?

A

a person’s thoughts are determined by language

93
Q

What is intrinsic frame?

A

spatial relations described in terms of objects

94
Q

What is relative frame?

A

spatial relations described from an observer’s viewpoint

95
Q

What is absolute frame?

A

spatial relations described as map coordinates

96
Q

What is the Grapheme-phoneme conversion?

A

what you see you convert to sounds

97
Q

What is surface dyslexia?

A

impaired at producing irregular words (25% of English words) like ‘comb’ or ‘thought’

98
Q

What is phonological dyslexia?

A

impaired at reading non-words or new words

99
Q

What are cognates?

A

same word, same meaning, but in a different language

100
Q

What are interlingual homographs?

A

same form, different meaning

ex: coin vs coin

101
Q

What is the language selective activation hypothesis?

A

you can “turn-off” the other language, so they never compete

102
Q

What is the language non-selective activation hypothesis?

A

You cannot “turn-off” the other language

- Words from both languages compete for selection

103
Q

What is executive control?

A

Set of cognitive processes involved in mental control and self-regulation
- Helps us attend to the target audience or to suppress the irrelevant language

104
Q

What is the Stroop effect?

A

the incongruent context is the slowest to be named correctly and results in more inaccuracies

105
Q

What is problem solving?

A

the multi-step process to shift your current problem state to a goal state

106
Q

What is a problem?

A

a state in which a goal has not been reached

107
Q

What are well-defined problems?

A

problems with a defined and established goal state, including set constraints to meet that goal

108
Q

What are ill-defined problems?

A

situations that have no clear path or way to move from the problem to the goal state

109
Q

What is cognitive load?

A

the amount of info that your working memory system can hold at one time
- Working memory capacity is limited

110
Q

What is brute force?

A

Systematic algorithms represent all the possible steps from the initial problem state
- You go through all the options via a blind search

111
Q

What is the hill climbing heuristic?

A

A difference reductions strategy

- Select the operation that would bring you closer to the end goal without examining the whole problem space

112
Q

What is the foothill problem?

A

since you don’t consider the full problem space, you may think you have reached your goal, but it’s a ‘local maxima’

113
Q

What is the working backward heuristic?

A

start with your goal state in mind and work back to your current state

114
Q

What is the means-end heuristic?

A
  • Involves both forward and backward movements and constantly evaluating the difference between current and goal states
  • Looks for greatest reduction in this difference while considering the full problem space
115
Q

What is concurrent verbalization?

A

describe what you are doing as you do it (how are you solving a problem)

116
Q

What is retrospective verbalization?

A

describe what you did at an earlier time

117
Q

What is analogical problem solving?

A

making comparisons between two situations and applying the solution from one of the situations to the other situation

118
Q

What is analogical transfer?

A

using past stories or solutions to solve a current problem

119
Q

What is insight problem solving?

A

• A person can’t find the solution, but then the correct solution emerges into consciousness

  • Aka the “aha moment”
  • Breaking free of assumptions to form new connections in mind to reach a new solution
120
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

the inability to see beyond the most common use of a particular object

121
Q

What is mental fixedness?

A

Responding with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate or less productive

122
Q

What is the Einstellung effect?

A

the tendency to respond inflexibly to a particular type of problem (a rigid set)

PSYC 213 (2 decks)

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