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PSY 330 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the goals of scientific research?

A
  • EXPLANATION: explain properties or relationships
  • PREDICTION: predict events
  • CONTROL: solve problems & gain understanding
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2
Q

Operationalization

A

Stating precisely what you plan on measuring & how

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3
Q

Hypothesis

A

A set of beliefs about the nature of the world

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4
Q

Independent v.s. dependent variable

A 
IV = manipulated
DV = measured
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5
Q

How can samples be biased? How can this affect the interpretation of research?

A
  • Not selecting a truly random sample that is a representative of a larger population
  • Unable to generalize findings
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6
Q

Type I error

A

False positive

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7
Q

Type 2 error

A

False negative (failure of a test to detect an actual outcome)

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8
Q

What is the purpose of a control group?

A

To compare results to

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9
Q

Reductive approach

A
  • Attempting to understand a complex system by looking at its parts and their interactions
  • Using lower levels of analysis to explain phenomenon at higher levels
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10
Q

Level of analysis

A

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social cultural, for analyzing any given problem

(ex. neurons, molecular biology, biochemistry or when testing a drug, examining histology first then animals)

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11
Q

Confound

A

When experimental groups differ in more than one way

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12
Q

Prospective

A

Uses our understanding of a system to make predictions about the future

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13
Q

Retrospective

A

Uses our understanding of a system to explain what has already happened (detective work)

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14
Q

Expected value

A

Amount of money you would expect to win in the long run in a better situtation

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15
Q

Base-rate neglect

A

Tendency for people to mistakenly judge the likelihood of a situation by not taking into account all relevant data

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16
Q

Gambler’s fallacy

A
  • Mistaken belief that chance events are self-correcting

- If a random event hasn’t occurred recently, it is more likely to occur.

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17
Q

What biases can affect our judgment of likelihood and probability?

A
  • Motivated reasoning
  • Limited perspectives and cognition
  • Bad data and problems evaluating evidence
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18
Q

Overconfidence

A

Mismatch between estimation of risks and the actual risks

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19
Q

Confirmation bias

A

More likely to decide a favorable outcome

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20
Q

Pollyanna principle

A
  • a.k.a. “Wishful thinking”
  • the idea that if we want something to happen, it will
  • tendency to believe that pleasant events are more likely to happen than unpleasant ones
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21
Q

Psychological reactance

A
  • WE DON’T LIKE BEING TOLD WHAT TO DO
  • resistance arising from restrictions of freedom
  • some people will select a less preferred alternative if they are told they must select the preferred alternative
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22
Q

Stages of problem solving

A
  • PREPARATION: understanding the nature of the problem
  • PRODUCTION: producing solution pathways
  • EVALUATION: evaluates solution paths in order to pick one
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23
Q

Ill-defined problem

A
  • Many possible answers

- Most problems in life

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24
Q

Well-defined problem

A

Single correct answer

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25
Q

Anatomy of a problem

A
  • Initial = where you are
  • Goal = where you want to be
  • Problem space
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26
Q

Problem space

A

All possible routes that take you from initial state to goal state in a problem

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27
Q

Mean-ends analysis

A

Break problems downs into subgoals –> brings you closer to the end goal

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28
Q

Incubation

A
  • Period in problem solving when the problem solver is not actively working on the problem
  • “time out period”
29
Q

Steps in Halpern’s framework of thinking

A
  • Verbal reasoning
  • Argument analysis
  • Thinking as hypothesis testing
  • Likelihood and uncertainty
  • Decision making and problem solving
30
Q

Falsification

A

To disprove hypothesis

31
Q

Principle of parsimony or occham’s razor

A

SIMPLE IS BETTER

32
Q

What approaches help researchers deal with high levels of complexity?

A
  • Shows how things interact in a complex system
  • Reductive approach
  • Controlled experiment
  • Converging evidences
  • Level of analysis
  • Principle parsimony
  • Factorial designs
33
Q

Advantages of using a factorial design instead of single factor experiment

A
  • Factorial design = looking at how things interact in a complex system
  • Understand the effects of TWO OR MORE IV upon a single DV
  • Traditional research methods generally study the effect of one
34
Q

Why can we not conclude causation when we observe a correlation between two variables?

A

Just because two things co-occur with one another, does not necessarily mean that one causes the other

35
Q

What are some means of double-checking or evaluating the quality of research?

A
  • Is it PEER-REVIEWED?
  • Is it part of a body of converging evidence?
  • Do you trust the source & reputation?
  • Has it been REPLICATED?
36
Q

Mechanism

A

Refer to a system of interacting factors whose details are described well enough that predictions can be made from them

37
Q

3 rules of causation

A
  • Are the variables related?
  • Temporal precedence
  • Internal validity
38
Q

Problems in pseudoscience

A
  • Not testable, can’t be replicated
  • Sounds too good to be true
  • example: Airborne claimed it prevented/treated colds
39
Q

Kahneman & Tversky subjective utility of gains v.s. loses

A
  • Subjective utility: the value of a choice to an individual who is making the decision
  • Usually a bigger deal when we lose than gain
40
Q

Sunk-cost fallacy

A
  • Decisions made on past investments rather than future reward
    (ex. junker car, spend thousands already, keep repairing instead of getting a new one –> spend as much in the end)
41
Q

How does framing a decision in terms of gains versus framing in terms of risks/losses affect decision-making?

A
  • MINIMIZE LOSS & MAXIMIZE GAINS
  • people make riskier decisions if the frame emphasizes loss & people become risk-avoiders if the decision is framed in terms of gains
42
Q

Backdrop of possible

A

Easier to remember what happened rather than what could have happened

43
Q

How do people’s expectations of randomness (naive people) differ from what true randomness looks like?

A
  • Most people tend to believe that randomness forms patterns/lines, but in reality it does not, it forms clumps and is scattered about
  • We expect more uniformity out or randomness and streak and clumps draw our attention
44
Q

Conjunction error

A

Mistaken belief that the co-occurrence of two or more events is more likely than the occurrence of one event alone

45
Q

Central tendency

A

Mean, median, & mode

46
Q

Variability

A

Range, variance, & standard deviation

47
Q

3 main ways to get it “wrong”

A
  1. Attitudes
  2. Bad data
  3. Bad habits & skills
48
Q

Expert

A

A person who has a comprehensive and authoritative knowledge of skill in a particular area

49
Q

What do Ericcson & Ward have to say about becoming an expert?

A
  • “expert performance approach”
  • GOAL: understand the mechanism that mediate consistently superior performance
  • Takes time
  • Expertise can change you physically and mentally
  • Deliberate practice is key
50
Q

Deliberate practice

A

Gain more experience

51
Q

Dunning-Krueger effect

A

Tendency to rate oneself higher than average

52
Q

How is expert memory different from novice memory? How is it similar?

A
  • Experts are encoding pieces by their meaningful relationships to other pieces which means they are chunking more effectively
  • Not found in random positioning when the structure is irrelevant the advantage goes away
53
Q

What evidence is there that experience shapes the brain?

A
  • “The knowledge” –> London cab drivers

- Parts of the brain can be changed by different things you learn

54
Q

Big C and little c creativity

A

Big C = “breakthough”

Little c = everyday creativity

55
Q

Lateral thinking

A

Thinking around the problem, increasing the number of possible alternatives

56
Q

2 strategies for creative thinking

A
  • Brain storming

- Creative idea checklists

57
Q

How might creativity relate to problem solving?

A
  • Using the information stored in memory to go beyond what is learned from experience –> different domains of knowledge
58
Q

How have laboratory studies of creativity operationalized performance?

A
  • Divergent thinking test: looks at the ability to generate as many possible solutions to a problem (ex. figuring out other uses for a paperclip)
  • Remote associative test: 3 random words where you state a word that links all 3 (ex. stool, powder, ball –> foot)
59
Q

Belief bias

A

Tendency to judge the strength of an argument based on the believability of the conclusion

60
Q

Shifting goalposts

A
  • Whenever you are challenged to present evidence against a position and you succeed, your opponent simply moves on to the next demand and pretend that it is what is truly important
  • Usually done by the losing side –> try to save face
  • “raising the bar”
61
Q

Dunning-Krueger effect

A

Most people rate themselves as moderately high in competence, regardless of their actual competence

62
Q

Appeal to consequences

A

Arguing that if an idea has bad consequences that it must be untrue

63
Q

Fallacy fallacy

A

Arguing that because an opponent’s argument contains a fallacy that their conclusion must be untrue

64
Q

Just world hypothesis

A

Describes a tendency for people to assume that actions lead to fitting consequences

65
Q

Halo effect

A

Likable/attractive people are sometimes perceived as smart or more capable

66
Q

Validity

A

The measure actually measures what you want

67
Q

Functional-fixedness

A

Considering only the standard use of an object

68
Q

False consensus

A

Tendency to think that one’s opinion are more typical b/c we usually surround ourselves with others who have similar views

PSY 330 (1 decks)

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