Midterm 2 Flashcards
There is a sub-heading called “The Rise of Persia” in the textbook. How did Persia rise to power?
- Persians were Indo-European people, came from the north and occupied mineral-rich territory by Early Iron age
- Persia rose to power under leadership of Cyrus II, conquered many cities and made them loyal, called ‘satrapies’ (provinces) of Persian empire
- Most important satrapie was Lydia, wealthy city with coinage innovation, demonstrated military power and intellect when captured by Cyrus II
- Darius I succeeded Cyrus II and created organization, centralization among empire
- Military strength, administrative power, etc. made Persia a very powerful empire
There is a sub-heading called “Persia Before Darius” in the textbook. Talk about two key points in this time period?
- Cyrus II ruled before Darius I
- Captured Lydia, ruled by Croesus, which was a wealthy and powerful city
- Lydia’s capture established much more significant control over Asia minor for Persian empire and demonstrated military power/tactics
There is a sub-heading called “The Achievements of Darius” in the textbook. What were Darius’ achievements?
- Administrative reform (empire divided into satrapies, each controlled by a satrap, taxation)
- Centralized capital (Persepolis)
- Currency (‘Darics’, standard weights/measures)
- Infrastructure (road networks, trade routes)
- Expanded military
- Legal policies (codified laws, promoted diverse cultural practices to avoid inner-empire conflicts)
In the lecture, there is a point called “the eyes and ears of the king”. Which king and what did this mean?
- Spy network used to discourage rebellions
- Darius I was the king that started it, but it lasted for much longer than his reign
- Underscored administrative power of the empire
What is Zoroastrianism
- One of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions
- Founded by the prophet Zarathustra in ancient Persia
- Became the dominant religion of the Achaemenid Empire
There is a sub-heading called “The Ionian Revolt” in the textbook. Why and how did the Ionian Greeks revolt? What was the result?
Why?
- Ionia was satropy of Persian Empire
- Taxes went up a lot
- Persia imposed tyrants to take control and they didn’t like them
How?
- Revolt was led by Aristogoras, tyrant of Miletus
- Athens sent 20 ships since they liked Aristogoras’ ideas which played a critical role in capturing/burning city of Sardis
Result?
- Persian king Darius I suppressed revolt systematically over years
- Ended in 494 BC at the Battle of Lade, city near Miletus
- Increased tensions between Persian empire and Greek territories
- Darius I determined to punish Athens and Eritrea for helping
- Led to first Persian invasion of Greece and the start of the Greco-Persian wars
There is a sub-heading called “Darius’ Invasion of Greece” in the textbook. Why and how did he invade Greece? What was the result?
Why?
- Because of Ionian revolt and Athens/Eritrea’s assistance in the rebellion
How?
- Started with first fleet under son-in-law Mardonius’ control, which failed aside from recapturing Thrace, Thasos, and Macedonia
- Second expedition launched to target Athens and Eritrea directly
- Captured Eritrea and deported residents, then moved down to Marathon
Result?
- Persia actually lost the battle of Marathon to Athens
- Major setback to Darius I
Who is Themistocles
- Key advocate for shifting the selection of archons (high-ranking officials) to a lottery system
- Diminished political influence of aristocratic elites and elevated the importance of the strategoi (generals), including Themistocles himself, elected based on merit rather than chance or privilege
- Utilized ostracism (exile people perceived as threats to the state)
- Used wealth from silver mines to fund construction of fleet of triremes (transition from land-based hoplite army to naval supremacy)
What is a trireme
- Big Athenian warship
- Three rows of oars (‘tri’-eme)
- Made Athens a maritime empire
There is a sub-heading called “The Invasion of Xerxes” in the textbook. Tell me about it and what was the reaction of the Greek poleis.
- Invasion of Xerxes, son of Darius, was Persia attempting to subjugate Greece after failure of Darius’ invasion a decade earlier
- Amassed enormous army/navy, unprecedented in scale, aiming to overwhelm Greek resistance
Greek poleis reaction:
- Poleis deeply divided
- Some, like Thessaly and Thebes, submitted to Persia by offering “earth and water”
- Others, such as Athens and Sparta, committed to resisting Persian domination
- Unity was tenuous, with disagreements over strategy and leadership among the Greek city-states.
- Coalition of Greek states, including Athens, Sparta, and Corinth, formed Hellenic League to coordinate defence
- Leadership of alliance was given to Sparta (superior land forces), Athens provided backbone of naval forces
There is a sub-heading called “The Invasion of Xerxes” in the textbook. What was the Greek strategy?
- Greeks decided to defend at Thermopylae (narrow mountain pass, would neutralize numerical advantage of Persian forces)
- Greek navy also planned to block Persian fleet at Artemisium, ensuring Xerxes’ land forces would not be supported by sea
- Aimed to delay/weaken Xerxes’ forces, giving themselves time to prepare for decisive naval confrontation
There is a sub-heading called “The Invasion of Xerxes” in the textbook. Describe the battle of Thermopylae. Who was Leonidas and the 300 Spartans
Battle of Thermopylae:
- For two days, Greeks successfully held off Xerxes’ army, exploiting narrow pass to negate Persian advantage in numbers
- Local traitor, Ephialtes, betrayed Greeks by revealing mountain path that allowed Persian forces to outflank them.
Leonidas and 300 Spartans:
- King Leonidas of Sparta led a force of approximately 7,000 Greeks, including his legendary 300 Spartans, to hold the pass at Thermopylae
- Spartans trained for war from childhood
- Leonidas dismissed most of the Greek forces, leaving a small contingent, including the 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans, to cover retreat.
- The defenders fought to the last man, inflicting significant casualties on the Persians and demonstrating unparalleled bravery and resolve.
There is a sub-heading called “The Battle of Salamis” in the textbook. Tell me about the context leading to the battle, the battle itself, and the result.
Context:
- After Persian victory at Thermopylae, Persian forces sacked Athens and destroyed Acropolis while Greek navy fled to Salamis
- Themistocles advocated for naval battle in confined waters of Salamis despite some Greek states (Peloponnesians) preferred otherwise (narrow straits negates numerical advantage, manoeuvrable triemes would be better)
Battle:
- Themistocles sent secret message to Xerxes suggesting Greeks planned to flee, convincing Xerxes to go to Salamis waters to find them
- Occurred on September 29, 480 BCE
- Triemes rammed and boarded Persian ships
- Themistocles commanded Greek forces while Xerxes observed battle from a throne
- Greeks won despite nearly half the fleet, Persian losses were catastrophic
Aftermath:
- Greeks felt unified, underscored importance of Athens and its navy in its defence of Greece
- Themistocles emerged as a hero, naval power idea was validated
What is Hellenocentrism
- Started in 480 BCE
- Belief that Greek civilization was superior to all others, emerged more strongly during and after the Persian invasions
- Greeks viewed their political systems, art, philosophy, and way of life as pinnacle of human achievement
- Believed superiority of the Greek polis (city-state) model over Persian monarchical and bureaucratic system
Describe the start of the Classical Period
- Defeat of Persians at battles like Salamis and victory at Plataea marked a turning point in Greek history and culture
- Survival of Greece in face of Persian aggression often seen as the beginning of the Classical Period
- Great achievements in art, philosophy, drama, politics, and science
- Greek victories fostered sense of shared identity and pride, laying the groundwork for the flourishing of democracy in Athens and the development of philosophical thought led by figures like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
- Classical Period often seen as era in which Greek civilization reached cultural zenith
Describe the Battle of Plataea (context, battle, aftermath)
Context:
- Xerxes withdrew after failed invasion of Greece, much smaller force now
- Sparta took lead in organizing defence
- Xerxes pawned off remaining army to Mardonius
Battle:
- Persian army now significantly outnumbered
- Greek army now led by Pausanias, consisted mainly of hoplites
- Battlefield was plain, hoplites strong, Persian cavalry less effective on this terrain
- Greeks beat Persians, Mardonius killed in battle
Aftermath:
- End of Persian threat
- Greek city-states used to be fragmented, now unified
- Still an evident rivalry between Athens and Sparta, both city-states would continue to vie for leadership, eventually leading to the Peloponnesian war
Who were the Alcmaeonid family
- Powerful Athenian aristocratic family
- Often associated with significant political events/reforms, including overthrow of tyranny and support for democratic reforms
- Known for exile and later return to prominence
Who was Cleisthenes
- Athenian reformer often considered father of Athenian democracy
- Reorganized political structure of Athens around the demes (local divisions)
- Created Council of Five Hundred
- Introduced ostracism to prevent tyranny
What was the Council of Five Hundred
- Democratic institution in Athens established by Cleisthenes
- Composed of 500 citizens chosen by lot
- Responsible for preparing agenda for the Assembly and overseeing administrative functions
Who was Cylon
- Athenian noble who attempted a coup to establish himself as a tyrant, but failed
- Massacre of his supporters due to failure
- Massacre led to political instability and curse on Alcmaeonid family
Who was Cyrus II (aka Cyrus the Great)
- Founder of Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire)
- United Persian tribes
- Overthrew Median Empire
- Expanded his rule to include Lydia and Babylon
Who was Darius I (aka Darius the Great)
- Persian king who expanded empire to its greatest territorial extent
- Organized empire into satrapies
- Initiated first Persian invasion of Greece, which culminated in the Battle of Marathon
Who is Draco
- Early Athenian lawmaker
- Known for extremely harsh legal code
Who is Gelon
- Tyrant of Syracuse in Sicily
- Played significant role in defeating Carthaginians at Battle of Himera (same time as Persian invasion of Greece)
Who was Harmodius and Aristogiton
- Two Athenian tyrannicides who assassinated Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus)
- Became symbols of Athenian democracy and resistance against tyranny
Who were Hektemoroi
- Poor farmers in Athens
- Owed a sixth of their produce to wealthy landowners
- Economic struggles contributed to social unrest and eventual reforms of Solon
Who were Hippias and Hipparchus
- Sons of Pisistratus
- Ruled Athens as tyrants
- Hippias became a repressive ruler after assassination of Hipparchus, leading to family’s overthrow
What was Marathon
Place in Attica where Athenians defeated a much larger Persian force in 490 BCE during first Persian invasion of Greece
Who were Metics
- Non-citizen residents of Athens
- Often traders or artisans
- Lacked political rights
- Required to pay taxes and serve in military
Who was Miltiades
- Athenian general
- Led Greek forces to victory at Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE
- Excellent strategist and leader
What is ostracism
- Political practice in Athens where citizens could vote to exile an individual for ten years to prevent rise of a tyrant
- Introduces as a safeguard for democracy
Who was Pisistratus
- Tyrant of Athens
- Implemented policies that benefited lower classes
Who were the Pentakosiomedimnoi
- Wealthiest class in Solon’s system of social/political organization in Athens
- Eligible for highest offices due to large landholdings and agricultural production
What was Salamis
- Island near Athens
- Where decisive naval battle of Persian Wars was fought in 480 BCE
- Greek fleet, led by Themistocles, defeated much larger Persian fleet
What were Satrapies
- Administrative divisions of Persian Empire
- Governed by satraps
- Key component of empire’s organizational structure
Who was Solon
- Reformer in Athens
- Introduced economic, political, and legal reforms to reduce social tensions
- Abolished debt slavery
What was Thermopylae
- Narrow pass in Greece
- 300 Spartans made heroic stand against much larger Persian army in 480 BCE, led by King Leonidas
Who was Xerxes
- Persian king
- Led second invasion of Greece in 480 BCE
- Oversaw battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea, ultimately leading to Persian defeat
Who was Pausanias
- Prominent Spartan commander
- Played crucial role in Greek victory at Battle of Plataea (479 BCE)
- Entrusted with Greek forces following this success
- Leadership style became controversial (accused of arrogance, adopting Persian customs, possibly conspiring with enemy
- Suspicions alienated allied Greek city-states and led to his eventual recall to Sparta
- Behaviour contributed to decline of Spartan leadership in Greek alliance, opening way for Athens
What was the Delian League, what were the terms of membership, and what were the two goals of the league
The Delian League:
- Founded 477 BCE under Athenian leadership as a coalition of Greek city-states against the Persian threat
- Represented a shift in Greek power dynamics
- Initially represented cooperative effort among Greek city-states, but eventually became tool for Athenian imperialism
- League’s treasury kept at Delos (hence ‘Delian’)
Terms of Membership:
- Member city-states contributed either ships or money to a common treasury
- Athens often provided military resources
- Smaller states contributed financially
Two Goals of the League:
1. Defence Against Persia - Primary objective
2. Retaliation and Liberation - Aimed to continue offensive operations against Persia, particularly to free Greek cities in Asia Minor still under Persian control
There is a sub-heading called “From Delian League to Athenian Empire” in the textbook. Tell me about it. Touch on cleruchies and problems within the league
- Athens transformed mutual alliance into a dominion under its control
- Period saw changes in governance, military dominance, and strained relationships
Cleruchy:
- Athenian colony, but distinct from traditional colonies
- Inhabitants were Athenian citizens and effectively Athenian territory
- Served two purposes: Military outposts and economic benefits (land redistributed to poorer Athenian citizens, easing class tensions)
Problems within League:
- Forced Tribute: Initially was for defence against Persia, but became Athens demanding money from most members and centralized military resources
- Rebellions: Some cities tried to leave but Athens stopped them with their military
- Perceived Exploitation: Many cities saw Athens using them, funding things like Parthenon
- Growing Tensions
Talk about Cimon and the exile of Themistocles
Cimon:
- Athenian
- Advocate of maintaining good relations with Sparta and leading Delian League against Persia
Themistocles’ Exile:
- Ostracized in 471 BCE
- Themistocles less favoured now due to political rivalries and accusations of pro-Persian sympathies
- Eventually sought refuge with Persia, striking reversal
- Exile marked rise of leaders like Cimon, who represented aristocratic faction and sought to expand Athenian dominance
What was the Helot Revolt? What were the causes and the outcome?
- Helots: State owned servant in Sparta, descendant of conquered peoples
- Helots revolted in 464 BCE following devastating earthquake
Causes:
- Earthquake destroyed much of Sparta, killed a lot of people
- Helots seized opportunity to rise against Spartan masters
Outcome:
- Revolt centred on Mount Ithome
- Sparta struggled to suppress rebellion, sought help from Athens (led by Cimon), but Spartans dismissed Athenian forces
- Revolt eventually ended but exposed Sparta’s vulnerabilities, contributed to strained relations with Athens
Talk about the Fall of Cimon
- Ostracized in 462 BCE
- Cimon’s dismissal during helot revolt undermined authority and reputation
- Rise of more radical democrats (Ephialtes/Pericles) led to shift in Athenian politics
- Ephialtes pushed reforms reducing Cimon influence
- Athenian politics became more democratic
Who was Pericles?
- Emerged after Cimon’s ostracism
- Political reforms (mostly for lower class)
- Foreign policy (distanced Athens from Sparta, focused more on Athenian Empire/Delian League)
- Oversaw Athenian Golden Age, funding monumental projects (Parthenon), helped shape legacy of classical greece
Tell me about the ‘1st’ Peloponnesian War
- Athens’ conflicts with Corinth (neighbor) due to trade rivalries
- Athens built defensive walls, antagonizing
- Athens tried to support Egypt in rebellion against Persia but lost (454 BCE), then Athens took treasury of Delian league to Athens, not Delos
- “30 Years’ Peace” treaty stabilized relations between Athens and Sparta (provisions were Athens kept its empire but agreed not to expand into Peloponnesian League territory, and both sides agreed to arbitration to settle future disputes)
What was the Athenian Assembly?
- Met about 40 times/year
- Open to all male citizens to discuss and vote on policies, laws, and military decisions
What were the different types of Athenian officials?
- Archons: Chosen by lot to ensure equality
- Boards of Officials: Made collective decisions to prevent individual domination
- 10 Military Commanders (strategoi): Elected for expertise and leadership
What were Liturgies?
- Wealthy citizens that financed public services (festivals, warships, infrastructure)
- Reinforced civic responsibilities
What were the benefits and drawbacks of the Athenian Democracy?
Benefits: Increased public engagement and equality in governance
Drawbacks: Relied heavily on labor of non-citizens (metics/slaves), some saw it as chaotic/inefficient
What were the Citizenship laws of 451 BCE?
Restricted citizenship to those with Athenian parents on both sides, limiting inclusivity but strengthening civic identity
There is a subheading called “Law & Democracy in Athens”. Tell me about it
Dicasteries (Juries):
- Jurors chosen by lot from male citizens over 30
- Large juries (500+) ensured decisions reflected collective judgment, limited corruption
Conduct of Cases:
- Evidence -> speeches, witnesses, and contracts
- Slave Evidence -> Considered valid only under torture
- Logographers -> Professional speechwriters prepared arguments for litigants
- One-day Trials -> Trials were swift
Crime and Punishment:
- Punishments varied (fines, exile, death)
- Emphasis on reparations for personal disputes rather than incarceration
Tell me about Lysias, “On the Murder on Eratosthenes”
- Famous speech defending Euphiletos, who admitted to killing Eratosthenes for committing adultery with his wife
- Highlighted Athenian belief in defending family honor and importance of persuasive rhetoric in trials
There is a subheading called “Currents in Greek thought and Education”. Tell me about it
Formal Education:
- Focused on developing well-rounded individuals (intellectual + physical)
- Subjects: Literature, music, PhysEd, math, astronomy, rhetoric
- Male citizens, starting age 7
Informal Education:
- Apprenticeships, cultural practices, oral traditions
- Family/community played key role
Sophists:
- Teachers of rhetoric/practical wisdom
- Taught art of persuasion and public speaking
- Emphasized relativism (truth = subjective)
Tell me about the birth of tragedy
- Greek drama began as choral songs dedicated to Dionysus (god of wine, fertility, revelry)
- Evolved into performances where Dionysus became protagonist (depicted as myths)
- Aeschylus introduced antagonist, allowed for dialogue/conflict, moving beyond single choral performance
- Laid foundation for development of dramatic structure and genre of tragedy
What was the City Dionysia Festival?
- 5 day festival in Athens dedicated to Dionysia
- Included competitions in tragedy and comedy with playwrights presenting works to be judged
- Central to Athenian culture
- Shaped public discourse, encouraged reflection on morality, politics, and human nature
What were the elements of tragedy?
- All male cast
- Half-sung, half-spoken
- Chorus (group of performers commented on action, expressed emotions, provided moral insight)
- Masks (actors wore masks to portray different characters and amplify expressions)
- Stylized performances (movements, gestures, speech were exaggerated)
- Peripeteia (sudden reversal of fortune, protagonist situation dramatically changes)
- Catharsis (emotional release experienced by audience, purification/sense of relief after intense drama)
What was a satyr play
- Greek drama performed as final play of a tetralogy at City Dionysia festival, following three tragedies
- Provided comic relief after intense emotional experience
Talk about the rise of comedy. Touch on Aristophanes
- Famous comedy playwright
- Known for sharp political/social satire
- Performed at City Dionysia
- Wrote “The Peace”: follows character Trygaeus as he travels to Olympus to negotiate peace between Athens and Sparta offering a critique of the ongoing Peloponnesian War
- Wrote “Lysistrata”: Famous anti-war play where women of Athens, led by Lysistrata, refuse to have sex until husbands agree to end war
Who was Herodotus
- Father of History
- Wrote “The Histories” (first systematic attempt to record/explain historic events, covers Greco-Persian Wars, customs, geography, etc.)
- Also called Father of Lies (included unverifiable stories/legends in his accounts)
What was Herodotus’ Theory of History? (3 things)
- Blindness: Leaders/nations often fail to see their own flaws/weaknesses, leading to poor decisions
- Pride: Hubris often blinds individuals/nations to vulnerabilities
- Destruction: Combination of blindness and pride leads to downfall
Who was Thucydides
- Wrote History of the Peloponnesian War, detailed account of conflict between Athens and Sparta (431 - 404 BCE)
- Focused more on factual accuracy, unlike Herodotus
- One of first historians to use rigorous, evidence-based approach (relied on firsthand accounts, eyewitness, critical analysis, avoiding reliance on divine explanations or myths)
Talk about Greek architecture, specifically the Naos & Pronaos, as well as the Peristyle
Naos (Cella):
- Inner chamber of a Greek temple
- Housing statue of deity to whom temple was dedicated
- Considered most sacred part of temple
Pronaos:
- Porch located in front of naos
- Had columns supporting roof
- Served as transitional space between exterior and interior
Peristyle:
- Row of columns that surrounded temple or courtyard
- Supported roof of temple
